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however, are at hand, and even if I do not say it, you know. For God formed you, as you see, upright, and gave you this exceptional form above all other living things. Why? Because he was about to bestow upon you also an exceptional and obligatory and necessary activity. All irrational animals are only grazing beasts, and for that to which they are naturally disposed, for this they also have their structure. Such is also the sheep; for since it was born to graze, it has its head bent downwards, so that it looks at its belly and what is under its belly; for the goal of their well-being is the filling of the belly and the enjoyment of pleasure. But for man, 67athe head, from its very formation, has been raised upwards and is established higher than all other parts of the body, so that it may look upon its kinship above. Therefore, do not transform yourself into what is contrary to nature, nor, bent over, look around at earthly things, but continually gaze upon and behold heavenly things, where your citizenship has also been prepared beforehand. Thus has your body been fashioned for you, and its fashioning is a lesson of the end for which you were made. For you were not constructed upright so that your life might be dragged on the earth like that of reptiles, but so that you might look at heaven and the God in it, nor so that you might pursue brutish and earthly enjoyment, but so that you might carry out the heavenly way of life with the intellect given to you. For this reason: "The eyes of the wise man are in his head," says the wise Ecclesiastes. And for what reason are the eyes not in the lower parts of the body but in the head? So that they might look around at the things on high. But he who does not look at the things on high but stoops to earthly things has brought his eyes down to the nature of a reptile, being dragged on the earth like them. 68a

The head, therefore, rising above the whole body, is set upon the shoulders, not sunk into them, so that it might not be hidden, but resting upon a worthy support and, as it were, a kind of base, the upright neck. In this are fixed the twin orbs of the eyes. For one was not sufficient, but two were made to help each other, so that the accidental loss of the one might have the consolation of the other unharmed one. And besides, the visual faculty coming forth from one place is in every way weaker, but the stream, being contributed from two sources, becomes more vigorous. For vision, proceeding from each side of the nose, at once rests upon its middle partition, and at the same time, projecting forward, the one unites with the other, as if from two channels proceeding from each eye as from a spring, and after a short distance mixing, one river is formed, which then indeed becomes stronger, or rather more effective. And a proof of this is the old among men, who see things very near least of all, but see things standing further from their eyes more clearly, since as the visual faculty proceeds divided at the start, the sight of each is weak, 69abut after the meeting and union of both, being multiplied as if in some flood, it becomes more vigorous and more effective for the perception of visible things. And the protections around the eye are not few. A tunic within, and this is not sufficient. For it could not be made thick; for it would have become an impediment to vision. But the covering had to be transparent and light. Therefore, one is transparent, one is fine; the one crystal-like, the other horn-like; the one covering it is more solid, the one within is finer, so as not to hinder transmission; the third again is crystal-like, so that in it each might have its reflection and transparency. The eyelid is a defense; 70afor this is a covering for the eye and a shelter and, as it were, a dwelling. For the hand could also provide cover, but while it was being raised, the eye would often have been dimmed already. But now the protection lies right there; for as soon as it perceived the harm, it put forward its covering. For this reason, the pupil of the eye is for the most part unassailable by harms coming from without, since it sits under the curtain of the eyelid and is kept untouched, almost alone of all the members in us. They have been put forth

7

μέντοι πρόχειρα, κἂν ἐγὼ μὴ λέγω, σὺ οἶδας. Ἔπλασε γάρ σε ὁ θεός, ὡς ὁρᾷς, ὄρθιον καὶ ταύτην σοι τὴν διάπλασιν ἐξαίρετον δέδωκε παρὰ τὰ λοιπὰ πάντα ζῷα. διὰ τί; ἐπειδὴ ἐξαίρετόν σοι καὶ τὴν ὀφειλομένην καὶ ἀναγκαίαν ἐνέργειαν προσεπιδοῦναι ἔμελλε. τὰ μὲν ἄλογα πάντα ζῷα βοσκήματα μόνον ἐστὶ καὶ πρὸς ὃ πέφυκε, πρὸς τοῦτο ἔχει καὶ τὴν κατασκευήν. ὁποῖόν ἐστι καὶ τὸ πρόβα τον· ἐπειδὴ γὰρ ἐγενήθη νέμεσθαι, κάτω ἔχει συννεύουσαν καὶ τὴν κεφαλήν, ὥστε τῇ γαστρὶ ἐνορᾶν καὶ τοῖς ὑπὸ γαστέρα· τέλος γὰρ αὐτοῖς εὐεξίας πλήρωσις γαστρὸς καὶ ἀπόλαυσις ἡδονῆς. ἀνθρώπῳ δὲ 67aἡ κεφαλὴ ἐπὶ τὰ ἄνω ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς πλάσεως ἀναδεδράμηκε καὶ ὑψηλοτέρα τῶν ἄλλων ἁπάντων τοῦ σώματος μερῶν καθέστηκεν, ἵνα τὴν ἄνω βλέπῃ συγγένειαν. μὴ τοίνυν μεταποίει σεαυτὸν εἰς τὸ παρὰ φύσιν μηδὲ τὰ γήϊνα κύψας περισκόπει, ἀλλὰ τὰ οὐράνια διη νεκῶς κατόπτευε καὶ ἐνοπτρίζου, ἔνθα σου καὶ τὸ πολίτευμα προευ τρέπισται. οὕτω σοι καὶ τὸ σῶμα διαπέπλασται καὶ τὸ διάπλασμα διδασκάλιόν ἐστι τοῦ τέλους πρὸς ὃ γέγονας. οὐ γὰρ ἵνα ἐπὶ γῆς σύρηταί σου ἡ ζωὴ ὡς τῶν ἑρπετῶν, κατεσκευάσθης ὄρθιος, ἀλλ' ἵνα οὐρανὸν βλέπῃς καὶ τὸν ἐν τούτῳ θεόν, οὐδὲ ἵνα τὴν κτηνώδη καὶ γήϊνον μεταδιώκῃς ἀπόλαυσιν, ἀλλ' ἵνα τὴν οὐράνιον ἐν τῇ δεδομένῃ σοι διανοίᾳ ἐπιτελῇς πολιτείαν. διὰ τοῦτο· Τοῦ σοφοῦ οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ αὐτοῦ, ὁ σοφός φησιν Ἐκκλησιαστής. τίνος δὲ ἕνεκεν οὐ περὶ τὰ κάτω τοῦ σώματος οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ ἀλλ' ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ; ἵνα τὰ ἐν ὕψει περισκοπῶσιν. ὁ δὲ τὰ ὑψηλὰ μὴ βλέπων ἀλλ' εἰς τὰ γήϊνα ἐπικύπτων κατήγαγεν εἰς ἑρπετοῦ φύσιν τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς ὡς ἐκεῖνα συρόμενος. 68a

Ἡ μὲν οὖν κεφαλὴ τοῦ ὅλου σώματος ὑπερανέχουσα τοῖς ὤμοις ἐπίκειται, οὐκ ἐνδεδυκυῖα τούτοις, ἵνα μὴ κρύπτηται, ἀλλ' ἐρείσματι ἀξιολόγῳ καὶ οἷον ἐπιβάθρᾳ τινὶ τῷ τοῦ αὐχένος ἀνεστηκότι ἐπανα παυομένη. ἐν ταύτῃ δὲ τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν ἐμπεπήγασι δίδυμοι βολαί. οὐκ ἤρκει γὰρ ὁ εἷς, ἀλλὰ δύο ἐγενέσθην ἀλλήλοις βοηθώ, ἵνα ἡ τοῦ ἑνὸς κατὰ τύχην διάλυσις τὴν τοῦ ἀβλαβοῦς ἑτέρου παραμυθίαν ἔχῃ. καὶ ἄλλως δὲ ἀπὸ ἑνὸς τόπου προερχόμενον τὸ ὁρατικὸν ἀσθενέστερον πάντως, ἐκ δὲ δύο πηγῶν συμβαλλόμενος ὁ ὁλκὸς εὐτονώτερος γίνεται. προϊοῦσα γὰρ ἑκατέρωθεν τῆς ῥινὸς ἡ ὄψις ὁμοῦ μὲν προσαναπαύεται τῷ μέσῳ τούτου διατειχίσματι, ὁμοῦ δὲ προκύπτουσα ἐπὶ τὸ ἔμπροσθεν ἑνοῦται ἡ μία τῇ ἑτέρᾳ, οἷον ἐκ δύο τινῶν ὀχετῶν ἀφ' ἑκατέρας ὄψεως ὥσπερ πηγῆς ἐξιόντων καὶ μετὰ βραχὺ μιγνυ μένων εἷς ἀποτελούμενος ποταμὸς ὁπότε δὴ καὶ ἰσχυρότερος γίνεται εἴτουν ἐνεργέστερος. καὶ τούτου ἀπόδειξις οἱ γέροντες τῶν ἀνθρώπων, οἳ τὰ μὲν ἐγγὺς πάνυ ἥκιστα βλέπουσι, τὰ δὲ πορρώτερον ἀποδιϊστάμενα τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν ἐναργέστερον καθορῶσιν, ἐπειδὴ διῃρη μένως μὲν τοῦ ὁρατικοῦ προϊόντος ἐξ ἀρχῆς ἀσθενὴς ἡ ἑκατέρου ὄψις, 69aμετὰ δὲ τὴν συμβολὴν ἀμφοτέρων καὶ ἕνωσιν οἷον ἐπὶ πλημμύρας τινὸς πολυπλασιαζομένη εὐτονωτέρα γίνεται καὶ δραστικωτέρα περὶ τὴν τῶν ὁρατῶν ἀνάληψιν. Φυλακαὶ δὲ περὶ τὸν ὀφθαλμὸν οὐκ ὀλίγαι. χιτὼν ἔνδοθεν, καὶ οὐκ ἀρκεῖ οὗτος. οὐ γὰρ ἐνεδέχετο παχὺς κατασκευασθῆναι· ἦ γὰρ ἂν ἐμπόδισμα καθειστήκει τῆς ὄψεως. ἔδει δὲ διαφανὲς εἶναι καὶ ἐλαφρὸν τὸ προκάλυμμα. οὐκοῦν εἷς μὲν διαυγὴς εἷς δὲ ἀραιός, ὁ μὲν κρυσταλλοειδὴς ὁ δὲ κερατοειδής, ὁ προκεκαλυμμένος στερεώτερος, ὁ ἔνδοθεν ἀραιότερος, ἵνα μὴ κωλύῃ τὴν παράδοσιν, ὁ τρίτος πάλιν κρυσταλλοειδής, ἵνα ἐν αὐτῷ τὴν ἔμφασιν καὶ τὴν διαύγειαν ἑκατέρα ἔχῃ. προβολὴ τὸ βλέφαρον· 70aτοῦτο γὰρ προκάλυμμα τοῦ ὀφθαλμοῦ καὶ σκέπασμα καὶ οἷον οἰκητήριόν ἐστιν. ἠδύνατο μὲν γὰρ σκέπειν καὶ ἡ χείρ, ἀλλ' ἕως ἐκείνη ἀνήρχετο, ἔφθανε πολλάκις ἀμαυρωθῆναι ὁ ὀφθαλ μός. νῦν δὲ ἐκεῖθεν παράκειται ἡ προφυλακή· ὁμοῦ τε γὰρ ᾔσθετο τῆς βλάβης καὶ προεβάλετο τὸ προκάλυμμα. διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο καὶ ἡ κόρη τοῦ ὀφθαλμοῦ ἀνεπιχείρητος ὡς τὰ πολλὰ ταῖς ἔξωθεν ἐπερχομέναις βλάβαις ἅτε ὑπὸ παραπετάσματι καθεζομένη τῷ βλεφάρῳ καὶ μόνη σχεδὸν τῶν ἐν ἡμῖν πάντων μελῶν διατηρουμένη ἀνέπαφος. προβέβληνται