3. “  Let the earth bring forth the living creature .” Thus when the soul of brutes appeared it was not concealed in the earth, but it was born by the command of God. Brutes have one and the same soul of which the common characteristic is absence of reason. But each animal is distinguished by peculiar qualities. The ox is steady, the ass is lazy, the horse has strong passions, the wolf cannot be tamed, the fox is deceitful, the stag timid, the ant industrious, the dog grateful and faithful in his friendships. As each animal was created the distinctive character of his nature appeared in him in due measure; in the lion spirit, taste for solitary life, an unsociable character. True tyrant of animals, he, in his natural arrogance, admits but few to share his honours. He disdains his yesterday’s food and never returns to the remains of the prey. Nature has provided his organs of voice with such great force that often much swifter animals are caught by his roaring alone. The panther, violent and impetuous in his leaps, has a body fitted for his activity and lightness, in accord with the movements of his soul. The bear has a sluggish nature, ways of its own, a sly character, and is very secret; therefore it has an analogous body, heavy, thick, without articulations such as are necessary for a cold dweller in dens.

When we consider the natural and innate care that these creatures without reason take of their lives we shall be induced to watch over ourselves and to think of the salvation of our souls; or rather we shall be the more condemned when we are found falling short even of the imitation of brutes. The bear, which often gets severely wounded, cares for himself and cleverly fills the wounds with mullein, a plant whose nature is very astringent. You will also see the fox heal his wounds with droppings from the pine tree; the tortoise, gorged with the flesh of the viper, finds in the virtue of marjoram a specific against this venomous animal  15  Plut. πότ. τῶν. ζ. κ.τ.λ. χελῶναι μὲν ὀρίγανον, γαλαῖ δὲ πήγανον, ὅταν ὄφεως φάγωσιν, ἐπεσθίουσαι. cf. Pliny xx. 68: “Tragoriganum contra viperæ ictum efficacissimum.” and the serpent heals sore eyes by eating fennel.  16  ὁ δράκων ὁ τῷ μαράθρω τὸν ὀφθαλμὸν ἀμβλυώπτοντα λεπτύνων καὶ διαχαράττων. Plut. πότερα τῶν ζ. κ.τ.λ. 731.

And is not reasoning intelligence eclipsed by animals in their provision for atmospheric changes? Do we not see sheep, when winter is approaching, devouring grass with avidity as if to make provision for future scarcity? Do we not also see oxen, long confined in the winter season, recognise the return of spring by a natural sensation, and look to the end of their stables towards the doors, all turning their heads there by common consent? Studious observers have remarked that the hedgehog makes an opening at the two extremities of his hole. If the wind from the north is going to blow he shuts up the aperture which looks towards the north; if the south wind succeeds it the animal passes to the northern door.  17  Ar., Hist. An. ix. 6. περὶ δὲ τῆς τῶν ἐχινων αἰσθήσεως συμβέβηκε πολλαχοῦ τεθεωρῆσθαι ὅτι μεταβαλλόντων βορέων καὶ νότων οἱ μὲν ἐν τῇ γῇ τὰς ὀπὰς αὑτῶν μεταμείβουσι οἱ δ᾽ ἐν ταῖς οἰκιαις τρεφόμενοι μεταβάλλουσι πρὸς τοὺς τοίχους. What lesson do these animals teach man? They not only show us in our Creator a care which extends to all beings, but a certain presentiment of future even in brutes. Then we ought not to attach ourselves to this present life and ought to give all heed to that which is to come. Will you not be industrious for yourself, O man? And will you not lay up in the present age rest in that which is to come, after having seen the example of the ant? The ant during summer collects treasures for winter. Far from giving itself up to idleness, before this season has made it feel its severity, it hastens to work with an invincible zeal until it has abundantly filled its storehouses. Here again, how far it is from being negligent! With what wise foresight it manages so as to keep its provisions as long as possible! With its pincers it cuts the grains in half, for fear lest they should germinate and not serve for its food. If they are damp it dries them; and it does not spread them out in all weathers, but when it feels that the air will keep of a mild temperature. Be sure that you will never see rain fall from the clouds so long as the ant has left the grain out.  18  ὑετοῦ ποιεῖται σημεῖον ὁ ῎Αρατος ῾ἢ κοίλης μύρμηκες ὀχῆς ἐξ ὤεα πάντα θᾶσσον ἀνηνέγκαντο.᾽ καίτινες οὐκ ὠ& 129· γράφουσιν, ἀλλὰ ἵνα τοὺς ἀποκειμένους καρποὺς ὅταν εὐρῶτα συνάγοντας αἴσθωνται καὶ φοβηθῶσι φθορὰν καὶ σῆψιν ἀναφερόντων, ὑπερβάλλει δὲ πᾶσαν ἐπινοιαν συνέσεως ἡ τοῦ πυροῦ τῆς βλαστήσεως προκατάληψις. Plut. ποτ. τῶν. ζ. κ.τ.λ. 725.

What language can attain to the marvels of the Creator? What ear could understand them? And what time would be sufficient to relate them? Let us say, then, with the prophet, “O Lord, how manifold are thy works! in wisdom hast thou made them all.”  19  Ps. civ. 24. We shall not be able to say in self-justification, that we have learnt useful knowledge in books, since the untaught law of nature makes us choose that which is advantageous to us. Do you know what good you ought to do your neighbour? The good that you expect from him yourself. Do you know what is evil? That which you would not wish another to do to you. Neither botanical researches nor the experience of simples have made animals discover those which are useful to them; but each knows naturally what is salutary and marvellously appropriates what suits its nature.

Ἐξαγαγέτω ἡ γῆ ψυχὴν ζῶσαν. Οὐ τοίνυν ἐναποκειμένη τῇ γῇ ἡ ψυχὴ τῶν ἀλόγων ἐξεφάνη, ἀλλ' ὁμοῦ τῷ προστάγματι συνυπέστη. Μία δὲ ψυχὴ τῶν ἀλόγων. Ἓν γὰρ αὐτὴν τὸ χαρακτηρίζον ἐστὶν, ἡ ἀλογία. Ἰδιώμασι δὲ διαφόροις ἕκαστον τῶν ζῴων κέκριται. Εὐσταθὴς μὲν γὰρ ὁ βοῦς, νωθὴς δὲ ὁ ὄνος: θερμὸς δὲ ὁ ἵππος πρὸς ἐπιθυμίαν τοῦ θήλεος: ἀτιθάσσευτος ὁ λύκος, καὶ δολερὸν ἡ ἀλώπηξ: δειλὸν ἡ ἔλαφος: ὁ μύρμηξ φιλόπονος: εὐχάριστον ὁ κύων καὶ πρὸς φιλίαν μνημονικόν. Ὁμοῦ τε γὰρ ἐκτίσθη ἕκαστον, καὶ συνεπηγάγετο ἑαυτῷ τῆς φύσεως τὸ ἰδίωμα. Συναπεγεννήθη ὁ θυμὸς τῷ λέοντι, τὸ μοναστικὸν αὐτοῦ τῆς ζωῆς, τὸ ἀκοινώνητον πρὸς τὸ ὁμόφυλον. Οἷον γάρ τις τύραννος τῶν ἀλόγων, διὰ τὴν ἐκ φύσεως ὑπεροψίαν, τὴν πρὸς τοὺς πολλοὺς ὁμοτιμίαν οὐ καταδέχεται. Ὅς γε οὐδὲ χθιζὴν τροφὴν προσίεται, οὐδ' ἂν τὰ λείψανα τῆς ἑαυτοῦ θήρας ἐπέλθοι: ᾧ καὶ τηλικαῦτα τῆς φωνῆς τὰ ὄργανα ἡ φύσις ἐνέθηκεν, ὥστε πολλὰ τῶν ζῴων ὑπερβάλλοντα τῇ ταχύτητι, μόνῳ πολλάκις ἁλίσκεσθαι τῷ βρυχήματι. Ῥαγδαῖον ἡ πάρδαλις, καὶ ὀξύρροπον ταῖς ὁρμαῖς: ἐπιτήδειον αὐτῇ τὸ σῶμα συνέζευκται τῇ ὑγρότητι καὶ τῷ κούφῳ τοῖς τῆς ψυχῆς κινήμασι συνεπόμενον. Νωθρὰ ἡ φύσις τῆς ἄρκτου, ἰδιότροπον καὶ τὸ ἦθος, ὕπουλον, βαθὺ ἐνδεδυκός. Ὅμοιον ἠμφίεσται καὶ τὸ σῶμα, βαρὺ, συμπεπηγὸς, ἀδιάρθρωτον, πρέπον τῷ ὄντι φωλάδι κατεψυγμένῃ. Ἐὰν ἐπερχώμεθα τῷ λόγῳ πόση τοῖς ἀλόγοις τούτοις ἐνυπάρχει ἀδίδακτος καὶ φυσικὴ τῆς ἑαυτῶν ζωῆς ἐπιμέλεια, ἢ πρὸς τὴν ἡμῶν αὐτῶν φυλακὴν καὶ τῆς τῶν ψυχῶν σωτηρίας πρόνοιαν κινηθησόμεθα, ἢ ἐπιπλέον κατακριθησόμεθα, ὅταν εὑρεθῶμεν καὶ τῆς μιμήσεως τῶν ἀλόγων ἀπολειπόμενοι. Ἄρκτος πολλάκις βαθυτάταις κατατρωθεῖσα πληγαῖς, ἑαυτὴν ἰατρεύει, πάσαις μηχαναῖς τῷ φλόμῳ τούτῳ ξηρὰν τὴν φύσιν ἔχοντι τὰς ὠτειλὰς παραβύουσα. Ἴδοις δ' ἂν καὶ ἀλώπεκα τῷ δακρύῳ τῆς πίτυος ἑαυτὴν ἰωμένην. Χελώνη δὲ σαρκῶν ἐχίδνης ἐμφορηθεῖσα, διὰ τῆς τοῦ ὀριγάνου ἀντιπαθείας φεύγει τὴν βλάβην τοῦ ἰοβόλου. Καὶ ὄφις τὴν ἐν τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς βλάβην ἐξιᾶται βοσκηθεὶς μάραθρον. Αἱ δὲ προγνώσεις τῆς περὶ τὸν ἀέρα μεταβολῆς ποίαν οὐχὶ σύνεσιν λογικὴν ἀποκρύπτουσιν; Ὅπου γε τὸ μὲν πρόβατον, χειμῶνος προσιόντος, λάβρως τὴν τροφὴν ἐπεμβάλλεται, ὥσπερ ἐπισιτιζόμενον πρὸς τὴν μέλλουσαν ἔνδειαν. Βόες δὲ κατακεκλεισμένοι χρονίως ἐν ὥρᾳ χειμερινῇ, ἤδη ποτὲ τοῦ ἔαρος προσιόντος, τῇ φυσικῇ αἰσθήσει τὴν μεταβολὴν ἐκδεχόμενοι, ἐκ τῶν βοοστασίων πρὸς τὰς ἐξόδους ὁρῶσι, πάντες ὑφ' ἑνὶ συνθήματι μεταβαλόντες τὸ σχῆμα. Ἤδη δέ τινες τῶν φιλοπόνων καὶ τὸν χερσαῖον ἐχῖνον ἐτήρησαν διπλᾶς ἀναπνοὰς τῇ ἑαυτοῦ καταδύσει μηχανησάμενον, καὶ μέλλοντος μὲν βορέου πνεῖν, ἀποφράσσοντα τὴν ἀρκτῴαν: νότου δὲ πάλιν μεταλαμβάνοντος, εἰς τὴν προσάρκτιον μεταβαίνοντα. Τί διὰ τούτων ἡμῖν ὑποδείκνυται τοῖς ἀνθρώποις; Οὐ μόνον τὸ διὰ πάντων διήκειν τοῦ κτίσαντος ἡμᾶς τὴν ἐπιμέλειαν, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ παρὰ τοῖς ἀλόγοις εἰναί τινα τοῦ μέλλοντος αἴσθησιν, ὥστε καὶ ἡμᾶς μὴ τῇ παρούσῃ ζωῇ προστετηκέναι, ἀλλ' ὑπὲρ τοῦ μέλλοντος αἰῶνος τὴν πᾶσαν ἔχειν σπουδήν. Οὐ φιλοπονήσεις περὶ σεαυτοῦ, ἄνθρωπε; οὐκ ἐν τῷ παρόντι αἰῶνι προαποθήσεις τὰς τοῦ μέλλοντος ἀναπαύσεις, πρὸς τὸ ὑπόδειγμα τοῦ μύρμηκος ἀποβλέψας; Ὃς ἐν θέρει τὴν χειμέριον τροφὴν ἑαυτῷ θησαυρίζει, καὶ οὐχ ὅτι μήπω πάρεστι τὰ τοῦ χειμῶνος λυπηρὰ, διὰ ῥᾳθυμίας παραπέμπει τὸν χρόνον: ἀλλὰ σπουδῇ τινι ἀπαραιτήτῳ πρὸς τὴν ἐργασίαν ἑαυτὸν κατατείνει, ἕως ἂν τὴν ἀρκοῦσαν τροφὴν ἐναπόθηται τοῖς ταμιείοις: καὶ οὐδὲ τοῦτο ῥᾳθύμως, ἀλλὰ σοφῇ τινι ἐπινοίᾳ τὴν τροφὴν ἐπιπλεῖστον διαρκεῖν μηχανώμενος. Διακόπτει γὰρ ταῖς ἑαυτοῦ χηλαῖς τῶν καρπῶν τὸ μεσαίτατον, ὡς ἂν μὴ ἐκφυέντες ἄχρηστοι πρὸς τροφὴν αὐτῷ γένοιντο. Καὶ διαψύχει τούτους, ὅταν αἴσθηται αὐτῶν διαβρόχων: καὶ οὐκ ἐν παντὶ προβάλλει καιρῷ, ἀλλ' ὅταν προαίσθηται τοῦ ἀέρος ἐν εὐδινῇ καταστάσει φυλαττομένου. Ἀμέλει οὐκ ἂν ἴδοις ὄμβρον ἐκ νεφῶν ἐπιρρυέντα παρ' ὅσον χρόνον ἐκ τῶν μυρμήκων ὁ σῖτος προβέβληται. Τίς ἐφίκηται λόγος; ποία χωρήσει ἀκοή; τίς ἐξαρκέσει χρόνος πάντα εἰπεῖν καὶ διηγήσασθαι τοῦ τεχνίτου τὰ θαύματα; Εἴπωμεν καὶ ἡμεῖς μετὰ τοῦ προφήτου, Ὡς ἐμεγαλύνθη τὰ ἔργα σου, Κύριε: πάντα ἐν σοφίᾳ ἐποίησας. Οὐ τοίνυν ἡμῖν πρὸς ἀπολογίαν αὔταρκες, τὸ μὴ γράμμασι διδαχθῆναι τὰ συμφέροντα, τῷ ἀδιδάκτῳ τῆς φύσεως νόμῳ τὴν τοῦ λυσιτελοῦντος αἵρεσιν δεξαμένοις. Οἶδας τί ποιήσεις τῷ πλησίον καλόν; Ὃ σεαυτῷ βούλει παρ' ἑτέρου γενέσθαι. Οἶδας ὅ τι ποτέ ἐστι τὸ κακόν; Ὃ οὐκ ἂν αὐτὸς παθεῖν ἕλοιο παρ' ἑτέρου. Οὐδεμία ῥιζοτομικὴ τέχνη, οὐδὲ ἐμπειρία βοτανικὴ τῶν ὠφελίμων τοῖς ἀλόγοις τὴν διδασκαλίαν ἐξεῦρεν, ἀλλὰ φυσικῶς ἕκαστον τῶν ζῴων τῆς οἰκείας ἐστὶ σωτηρίας ποριστικὸν, καὶ ἄρρητόν τινα κέκτηται τὴν πρὸς τὸ κατὰ φύσιν οἰκείωσιν.