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in itself, what is philosophy. 3 Concerning philosophy. 1. Philosophy is the knowledge of things that are, as they are, that is, knowledge of the nature of things that are. And again: 2. Philosophy is the knowledge of things both divine and human, that is, of things both visible and invisible. 3. Philosophy again is the practice of death, both voluntary and natural; for life is twofold, both the natural, by which we live, and the voluntary, by which we passionately cling to the present life. Death is also twofold: the natural, which is the separation of soul from body, and the voluntary, by which, despising the present life, we hasten toward the one to come. 4. Philosophy is again likeness to God. We become like God according to wisdom, that is, the true knowledge of the good, and according to justice, which is the distributor of what is equal and impartial in judgment, and also according to holiness, which is beyond justice, that is, the good of doing good to those who wrong oneself. 5. Philosophy is the art of arts and the science of sciences. For philosophy is the beginning of every art; for through it every art and every science has been discovered. Art, therefore, is that which is mistaken in some things according to some people, while science is that which is mistaken in nothing; but philosophy alone is not mistaken. According to others, art is that which is worked by hands, while science is every logical art, grammar, rhetoric, and such things. 6. Philosophy again is the love of wisdom. But true wisdom is God; therefore, the love for God is the true philosophy. Philosophy is divided into the theoretical and the practical; the theoretical into theology, physics, mathematics, and the practical into ethics, economics, politics. The theoretical, then, is that which orders knowledge. Theological, then, is the understanding of incorporeal and immaterial things, first God, who is truly immaterial, and then also angels and souls. Physics is the knowledge of material things and those at hand, that is, animals, plants, stones, and such things. Mathematics is the knowledge of things that are in themselves incorporeal but are observed in bodies, I mean numbers and the harmony of sounds, and also of shapes and the movement of stars. Therefore, the theory concerning numbers constitutes the science of arithmetic, that concerning sounds music, that concerning shapes geometry, and that concerning stars astronomy. These are intermediate between corporeal and incorporeal things; for number in itself is incorporeal, but it is also observed in matter, in wheat perhaps or wine or any such things. The practical is concerned with virtues; for it orders character and teaches how one ought to live as a citizen. And if it legislates for one person, it is called ethics; if for a whole household, it is called economics; and if for cities and countries, it is called politics. But some have tried to do away with philosophy, asserting that it does not exist, nor is it any kind of knowledge or comprehension. To whom we will say: How can you say that philosophy and knowledge and comprehension do not exist, having known and comprehended this, or not having known nor comprehended it? If, then, you have comprehended it, behold, knowledge and comprehension exist; but if you have not known it, no one will believe you when you discuss a matter of which you have not grasped the knowledge. Since, therefore, philosophy exists and is the knowledge of things that are, let us speak about what is. But it is necessary to know that we are beginning with the logical part of philosophy, which is an instrument of philosophy rather than a part; for it is used for every proof. We are discussing, therefore, for the time being, simple utterances through simple concepts signifying simple things; for having first declared the meaning of words, we will thus also examine propositions. 4 Concerning being, both substance and accident. Being is the common name for all things that are. This is divided into substance and accident. Substance, then, is (ῃ. ι. 62-64) the more principal, as having its existence in itself and not in another, while accident is that which cannot exist in itself (ῃ. ι. 66 ς.) but is observed in substance. For substance is the underlying subject like matter, while accident is that which is observed in the substance as in an underlying subject, for instance, bronze and wax are substance, but shape and form and color

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αὐτόχρημα, τί ἐστι φιλοσοφία. 3 Περὶ φιλοσοφίας. αʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶ γνῶσις τῶν ὄντων, ᾗ ὄντα ἐστί, τουτέστι γνῶσις τῆς τῶν ὄντων φύσεως. Καὶ πάλιν· βʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶ γνῶσις θείων τε καὶ ἀνθρωπίνων πραγμάτων τουτέστιν ὁρατῶν τε καὶ ἀοράτων. γʹ Φιλοσοφία πάλιν ἐστὶ μελέτη θανάτου τοῦ προαιρετικοῦ καὶ τοῦ φυσικοῦ· διττὴ γὰρ ἡ ζωὴ ἥ τε φυσική, καθ' ἣν ζῶμεν, καὶ ἡ προαιρετική, καθ' ἣν προσπαθῶς τῆς παρούσης ζωῆς ἀντεχόμεθα. ∆ιττὸς καὶ ὁ θάνατος ὅ τε φυσικός, ὅς ἐστι χωρισμὸς ψυχῆς ἀπὸ σώματος, καὶ ὁ προαιρετικός, καθ' ὃν τῆς παρούσης ζωῆς καταφρονοῦντες πρὸς τὴν μέλλουσαν ἐπειγόμεθα. δʹ Φιλοσοφία αὖθίς ἐστιν ὁμοίωσις θεῷ. Ὁμοιούμεθα δὲ θεῷ κατὰ τὸ σοφὸν ἤτοι τὴν τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ γνῶσιν τὴν ἀληθῆ καὶ κατὰ τὸ δίκαιον, ὅ ἐστι τὸ τοῦ ἴσου διανεμητικὸν καὶ ἀπροσωπόληπτον ἐν κρίσει καὶ κατὰ τὸ ὅσιον δέ, τὸ ὑπὲρ τὸ δίκαιον, ἤτοι τὸ ἀγαθὸν τὸ εὐεργετεῖν τοὺς αὑτὸν ἀδικοῦντας. εʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶ τέχνη τεχνῶν καὶ ἐπιστήμη ἐπιστημῶν. Ἡ γὰρ φιλοσοφία ἀρχή ἐστι πάσης τέχνης· δι' αὐτῆς γὰρ πᾶσα τέχνη εὕρηται καὶ πᾶσα ἐπιστήμη. Τέχνη μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἡ ἔν τισι σφαλλομένη κατά τινας, ἐπιστήμη δὲ ἡ ἐν μηδενὶ σφαλλομένη· μόνη δὲ ἡ φιλοσοφία οὐ σφάλλεται. Καθ' ἑτέρους δὲ τέχνη μέν ἐστιν ἡ διὰ χειρῶν ἐργαζομένη, ἐπιστήμη δὲ πᾶσα λογικὴ τέχνη, γραμματική, ῥητορικὴ καὶ αἱ τοιαῦται. ʹ Φιλοσοφία πάλιν ἐστὶ φιλία σοφίας. Σοφία δὲ ἀληθὴς ὁ θεός ἐστιν· ἡ οὖν ἀγάπη ἡ πρὸς τὸν θεὸν αὕτη ἐστὶν ἡ ἀληθὴς φιλοσοφία. ∆ιαιρεῖται δὲ ἡ φιλοσοφία εἰς θεωρητικὸν καὶ πρακτικόν, τὸ θεωρητικὸν εἰς θεολογικόν, φυσικόν, μαθηματικόν, τὸ δὲ πρακτικὸν εἰς ἠθικόν, οἰκονομικόν, πολιτικόν. Θεωρητικὸν μὲν οὖν ἐστι τὸ τὴν γνῶσιν κοσμοῦν. Ἔστιν οὖν θεολογικὸν τὸ κατανοεῖν τὰ ἀσώματα καὶ ἄυλα, πρῶτον μὲν θεὸν τὸν ὄντως ἄυλον, ἔπειτα δὲ καὶ ἀγγέλους καὶ ψυχάς. Φυσιολογικὸν δὲ ἡ τῶν ὑλικῶν καὶ προχείρων ἡμῖν γνῶσις ἤτοι ζῴων, φυτῶν, λίθων καὶ τῶν τοιούτων. Μαθηματικὸν δὲ ἡ τῶν καθ' αὑτὰ μὲν ἀσωμάτων, ἐν σώμασι δὲ θεωρουμένων γνῶσις, ἀριθμῶν φημι καὶ ἁρμονίας φθόγγων, ἔτι δὲ σχημάτων καὶ ἄστρων κινή σεως. Ἡ μὲν οὖν περὶ ἀριθμοὺς θεωρία τὴν ἀριθμητικὴν συνίστησιν ἐπιστήμην, ἡ δὲ περὶ φθόγγους τὴν μουσικήν, ἡ δὲ περὶ σχήματα τὴν γεωμετρικήν, ἡ δὲ περὶ ἄστρα τὴν ἀστρονομικήν. Ταῦτα δὲ μέσα σωμάτων καὶ ἀσωμάτων εἰσίν· ὁ γὰρ ἀριθμὸς καθ' αὑτὸν μὲν ἀσώματός ἐστι, θεωρεῖται δὲ καὶ ἐν ὕλῃ, σίτῳ τυχὸν ἢ οἴνῳ ἤ τινι τῶν τοιούτων. Τὸ δὲ πρακτικὸν περὶ ἀρετὰς καταγίνεται· ἦθος γὰρ κοσμεῖ καί, πῶς δεῖ πολιτεύεσθαι, διδάσκει. Καὶ εἰ μὲν ἑνὶ ἀνθρώπῳ νομοθετεῖ, λέγεται ἠθικόν, εἰ δὲ ὅλῳ οἴκῳ, λέγεται οἰκονομικόν, εἰ δὲ πόλεσι καὶ χώραις, λέγεται πολιτικόν. Ἀλλ' ἀναιρεῖν ἐπεχείρησάν τινες τὴν φιλοσοφίαν φάσκοντες μὴ εἶναι ταύτην μηδὲ γνῶσίν τινα ἢ κατάληψιν. Πρὸς οὓς ἐροῦμεν· Πῶς φατε μὴ εἶναι φιλοσοφίαν καὶ γνῶσιν καὶ κατάληψιν, ἐγνωκότες καὶ κατειληφότες ἢ μὴ ἐγνωκότες μηδὲ κατειληφότες; Εἰ μὲν οὖν κατειληφότες, ἰδοὺ ἔστι γνῶσις καὶ κατάληψις, εἰ δὲ μὴ ἐγνωκότες, οὐδεὶς ὑμῖν πιστεύσει περὶ πράγματος διαλεγομένοις, οὗ τὴν γνῶσιν οὐ κατειλήφατε. Ἐπεὶ τοίνυν ἔστι φιλοσοφία καὶ γνῶσις τῶν ὄντων ἐστί, περὶ τοῦ ὄντος εἴπωμεν. Εἰδέναι δὲ δεῖ, ὡς τοῦ λογικοῦ μέρους τῆς φιλοσοφίας ἀρχόμεθα, ὅπερ ὄργανόν ἐστι μᾶλλον τῆς φιλοσοφίας ἤπερ μέρος· αὐτῷ γὰρ πρὸς πᾶσαν ἀπόδειξιν κέχρηται. ∆ιαλεγόμεθα οὖν περὶ ἁπλῶν φωνῶν τέως δι' ἁπλῶν ἐννοιῶν ἁπλᾶ δηλουσῶν πράγματα· πρότερον γὰρ τὴν τῶν λέξεων σημασίαν δηλώσαντες οὕτω καὶ περὶ λόγων διασκεψόμεθα. 4 Περὶ τοῦ ὄντος οὐσίας τε καὶ συμβεβηκότος. Τὸ ὂν κοινὸν ὄνομά ἐστι πάντων τῶν ὄντων. Τοῦτο διαιρεῖται εἰς οὐσίαν καὶ συμβεβηκός. Οὐσία μὲν οὖν ἐστι (ῃ. ι. 62-64) τὸ κυριώτερον ὡς ἐν ἑαυτῷ καὶ μὴ ἐν ἑτέρῳ ἔχον τὴν ὕπαρξιν, συμβεβηκὸς δὲ τὸ μὴ δυνάμενον ἐν ἑαυτῷ εἶναι (ῃ. ι. 66 ς.) ἐν δὲ τῇ οὐσίᾳ θεωρούμενον. Ἡ μὲν γὰρ οὐσία τὸ ὑποκείμενόν ἐστιν ὥσπερ ὕλη, συμβεβηκὸς δὲ ἡ ἐν τῇ οὐσίᾳ ὡς ἐν ὑποκειμένῳ θεωρουμένη, οἷον χαλκὸς καὶ κηρὸς οὐσία σχῆμα δὲ καὶ μορφὴ καὶ χρῶμα