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the reasoning. When, therefore, having come to his senses, he avoids these things, and proceeds to the virtues, he obtains a just mercy, which is forgiveness. And just as the capacity for laughter is a property of his substance, since it belongs to him alone, to everyone, and always; so in matters of grace it is a property of man, beyond all rational creation, to be stripped of the guilt of past sins through repentance. For this has been granted to man alone, to every man, and always, during the time of this worldly life; but after death, no longer. Thus some wish that angels also no longer obtain forgiveness from repentance after their fall; for their fall is their death; but before the fall, in a way similar to the life of men, they too were deemed worthy of forgiveness; since they did not do this, they have an unforgivable and everlasting fitting punishment for the rest of time. It is clear, therefore, from these things, that those who do not accept repentance deny the exceptional gift and property of man. His own and exceptional property, and alone among the other animals, is that his body rises after death and proceeds to immortality; and he obtains this, because of the immortality of the soul, just as he obtains that, because of the weakness and great suffering of the body. His properties are also the learning of arts and sciences, and the activities according to these arts. For this reason they also define man as a rational, mortal animal, capable of intelligence and knowledge; an animal, because man is an ensouled, sentient substance. For this is the definition of an animal. and rational, to be distinguished from the irrational; and mortal, to be distinguished from the immortal rational beings. And "capable of intelligence and knowledge," because arts and sciences come to us through learning, possessing the capacity to receive both intelligence and the arts, while their actualization is acquired through learning. But they say that this was added to the definition later. For the definition was sound even without it; but since some introduce nymphs and certain other kinds of daemons, long-lived but not, however, immortal, in order to distinguish man from these as well, they added "capable of intelligence and knowledge." For none of those learns anything, but knows what it knows by nature. But it is a dogma of the Hebrews that all this has come into being for the sake of man; immediately for his sake, such as beasts of burden and oxen for farming, and grass for the sake of these. For of the things that have come into being, some have come into being for their own sake, and others for the sake of others. All rational things for their own sake; and for the sake of others, the irrational and inanimate things. If these have come into being for the sake of others, let us consider for whose sake they have come into being. Is it then for the sake of angels? But no one in his right mind would say they have come into being for the sake of angels. For the things that come into being for the sake of others have come into being for their constitution, preservation, and comfort. For they are either for the sake of the succession of the species, or for food or shelter or care or pastime and rest. But an angel needs none of these things; for he neither has succession of species, nor is he in need of bodily food, nor of shelter, nor of the others. And if not an angel, it is clear that neither is it any other nature that has ascended above the angel; for the more it is superior, the more self-sufficiency belongs to it. We must therefore seek a rational nature that is in need of the aforementioned things. What other such nature, then, could appear if we leave out man? Therefore it is concluded that both the irrational and the inanimate have come into being for his sake. Since, then, as has been shown, it has come into being for his sake, for this reason he was also established as their ruler. And it is the task of a ruler to use those who are ruled according to the measure of need, and not to wantonly abuse them for sensual pleasure, nor to treat those who are ruled in a burdensome and oppressive manner. Therefore, all those who do not use the irrational creatures well are sinning, for they do not perform the task of a ruler, nor of a just man, according to what is written: a righteous man has pity on the souls of his cattle. But perhaps someone will say that nothing has come into being for the sake of another, but each for its own sake. Therefore, having first separated the animate from the inanimate, let us see if the inanimate things can have come into being for their own sake. For if these are for their own sake, how or from where will the animals be fed? For we see nature supplying food to the animals from the earth of both fruits and plants, except for the very few that are carnivorous;

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τὸν λογισμόν. ὅταν οὖν ἀνανήψας ἀποφύγῃ μὲν ταῦτα, χωρήσῃ δὲ ἐπὶ τὰς ἀρετὰς, ἐλέου δικαίου τυγχάνει, τῆς συγγνώμης. καὶ ὥσπερ ἴδιόν ἐστιν τῆς οὐσίας αὐτοῦ τὸ γελαστικὸν, ἐπειδὴ καὶ μόνῳ τούτῳ πρόσεστι καὶ παντὶ καὶ ἀεί· οὕτως ἐν τοῖς κατὰ χάριν ἴδιον ἀνθρώπου παρὰ πᾶσαν τὴν λογικὴν κτίσιν, τὸ διὰ τῆς μετανοίας ἀποδύεσθαι τῶν προημαρτημένων τὰς αἰτίας. καὶ γὰρ μόνῳ ἀνθρώπῳ τοῦτο δεδώρηται καὶ παντὶ καὶ ἀεὶ παρὰ τὸν καιρὸν τῆς ἐγκοσμίου ζωῆς· μετὰ δὲ θάνατον οὐκέτι. οὕτω δέ τινες καὶ τοὺς ἀγγέλους βούλονται μηκέτι μετὰ τὴν ἔκπτωσιν τυγχάνειν τῆς ἐκ μετανοίας συγγνώμης· θάνατος γὰρ τούτων ἡ ἔκπτωσις· πρὸ δὲ τῆς ἐκπτώσεως, καθ' ὁμοιότητα τῆς ζωῆς τῆς τῶν ἀνθρώπων, καὶ αὐτοὺς ἀξιοῦσθαι συγγνώμης· ὅπερ μὴ ποιήσαντες, ἀσύγγνωστον καὶ διαιωνίζουσαν ἔχουσι τὸ λοιπὸν τῆς τιμωρίας τὴν προσήκουσαν δίκην. δῆλον οὖν ἐκ τούτων, ὡς οἱ τὴν μετάνοιαν οὐ δεχόμενοι τὴν ἐξαίρετον δωρεὰν καὶ τὴν ἰδίαν ἀνθρώπου περιγράφουσιν. ἴδιον δὲ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐξαίρετον καὶ τὸ μόνον τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων τὸ τούτου σῶμα μετὰ θάνατον ἀνίστασθαι καὶ εἰς ἀθανασίαν χωρεῖν· τυγχάνει δὲ τούτου, διὰ τὴν τῆς ψυχῆς ἀθανασίαν, ὥσπερ ἐκείνου, διὰ τὴν τοῦ σώματος ἀσθένειάν τε καὶ πολυπάθειαν. ἴδια δὲ αὐτοῦ καὶ τὰ τῶν τεχνῶν τε καὶ ἐπιστημῶν μαθήματα, καὶ αἱ κατὰ τὰς τέχνας ταύτας ἐνέργειαι. διὸ καὶ τὸν ἄνθρωπον ὁρίζονται, ζῷον λογικὸν, θνητὸν, νοῦ καὶ ἐπιστήμης δεκτικόν· ζῷον μὲν ὅτι καὶ ὁ ἄνθρωπος οὐσία ἐστὶν ἔμψυχος, αἰσθητική. οὗτος γὰρ ὅρος ζῴου. λογικὸν δὲ, ἵνα χωρισθῇ τῶν ἀλόγων· καὶ θνητὸν, ἵνα χωρισθῇ τῶν ἀθανάτων λογικῶν. τὸ δὲ νοῦ καὶ ἐπιστήμης δεκτικόν, ὅτι διὰ μαθήσεως προσγίνονται ἡμῖν αἱ τέχναι καὶ ἐπιστῆμαι, ἔχουσι μὲν δύναμιν δεκτικὴν καὶ τοῦ νοῦ καὶ τῶν τεχνῶν, τὴν δὲ ἐνέργειαν κτωμένοις ἐκ τῶν μαθημάτων. λέγουσι δὲ τοῦτο τῷ ὅρῳ προστεθῆναι ὕστερον. ἐρρῶσθαι μὲν γὰρ καὶ χωρὶς τούτου τὸν ὅρον· ἀλλ' ἐπειδὴ καὶ νύμφας καὶ ἄλλα τινὰ γένη δαιμόνων τινὲς εἰσάγουσι, πολυχρόνια μὲν οὐ μὴν ἀθάνατα, ἵνα καὶ ἀπὸ τούτων διαστείλωσι τὸν ἄνθρωπον προσέθηκαν τὸ νοῦ καὶ ἐπιστήμης δεκτικόν. οὐδὲν γὰρ ἐκείνων μανθάνει ἀλλὰ φύσει οἶδεν ἃ οἶδεν. Ἑβραίων δὲ δόγμα τὸ πᾶν τοῦτο διὰ τὸν ἄνθρωπον γεγενῆσθαι· προσεχῶς μὲν δι' αὐτὸν οἷον νωτοφόρα καὶ βόας τοὺς πρὸς γεωργίαν, χόρτον δὲ διὰ ταῦτα. τῶν γὰρ γενομένων τὰ μὲν δι' ἑαυτὰ γέγονεν, τὰ δὲ δι' ἄλλα. δι' ἑαυτὰ μὲν τὰ λογικὰ πάντα· δι' ἕτερα δὲ τά τε ἄλογα καὶ τὰ ἄψυχα. εἰ δὲ ταῦτα δι' ἄλλα γέγονε, διὰ ποῖα γέγονε σκοπήσωμεν. ἆρ' οὖν δι' ἀγγέλους; ἀλλ' οὐκ ἄν τις εὖ φρονῶν εἴποι δι' ἀγγέλους αὐτὰ γεγενῆσθαι. τὰ γὰρ δι' ἄλλα γενόμενα πρὸς σύστασιν ἐκείνων καὶ διαμονὴν καὶ ἄνεσιν γέγονεν. ἢ γὰρ τῆς διαδοχῆς τοῦ γένους ἕνεκεν ἢ τροφῆς ἢ σκέπης ἢ θεραπείας ἢ διαγωγῆς καὶ ἀναπαύσεως. ἄγγελος δὲ οὐδενὸς τούτων δεῖται· οὔτε γὰρ διαδοχὴν ἔχει γένους οὔτε τροφῆς ἐνδεής ἐστι σωματικῆς οὔτε σκέπης οὔτε τῶν ἄλλων. εἰ δὲ μὴ ἄγγελος δῆλον ὡς οὐδὲ ἄλλη τις φύσις ὑπεραναβεβηκυῖα τὸν ἄγγελον· ὅσῳ γὰρ ὑπέρκειται, τοσούτῳ μᾶλλον αὐτῇ καὶ τὸ ἀνενδεὲς πρόσεστιν. ζητητέον οὖν φύσιν λογικὴν μὲν ἐνδεᾶ δὲ τῶν προειρημένων. τίς ἂν οὖν ἑτέρα τοιαύτη φανείη παραλιπόντων ἡμῶν τὸν ἄνθρωπον; οὐκοῦν συνάγεται διὰ τοῦτον τά τε ἄλογα καὶ τὰ ἄψυχα γεγενῆσθαι. ἐπειδὴ τοίνυν δι' αὐτὸν ὡς ἐδείχθη γέγονεν διὰ τοῦτο καὶ ἄρχων αὐτῶν κατέστη. ἄρχοντος δὲ ἔργον πρὸς μέτρον χρείας τοῖς ἀρχομένοις κεχρῆσθαι καὶ μὴ πρὸς ἡδυπάθειαν ἀκολάστως ἐξυβρίζειν μηδὲ φορτικῶς καὶ ἐπαχθῶς προσφέρεσθαι τοῖς ἀρχομένοις. ἁμαρτάνουσι τοίνυν ὅσοι τοῖς ἀλόγοις οὐκ εὖ κέχρηνται, οὐ γὰρ ποιοῦσιν ἄρχοντος ἔργον οὐδὲ δικαίου κατὰ τὸ γεγραμμένον· δίκαιος οἰκτείρει ψυχὰς κτηνῶν αὐτοῦ. ἀλλ' ἴσως ἐρεῖ τις ὡς οὐδὲν δι' ἄλλο, ἀλλ' ἕκαστον δι' ἑαυτὸ γέγονεν. οὐκοῦν χωρίσαντες πρῶτον τὰ ἔμψυχα ἀπὸ τῶν ἀψύχων ἴδωμεν εἰ δύναται τὰ ἄψυχα δι' ἑαυτὰ γεγενῆσθαι. εἰ γὰρ ταῦτα δι' ἑαυτά, πῶς ἢ πόθεν τραφήσεται τὰ ζῷα; ὁρῶμεν γὰρ τὴν φύσιν ἐπιχορηγοῦσαν τοῖς ζῴοις τροφὰς ἐκ τῆς γῆς καρπῶν τε καὶ φυτῶν πλὴν ἐλαχίστων τῶν σαρκοφάγων·