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And these very carnivorous animals make their food from the animals that graze the earth, as wolves and lions do lambs and goats and boars and deer, and eagles do partridges and pigeons and hares and the like, which feed on the fruits of the earth. For the nature of fish, being eaters of one another, does not extend to all being carnivorous, but it has ended in those that feed on seaweed and other things that grow in the water. For if all kinds of fish were carnivorous, and nothing escaped eating flesh, they would not have lasted even for a short time, but would have been destroyed, some by one another, and others through lack of food. But so that this might not happen, some of the fish were created abstaining from flesh, but feeding on what one might call sea-pasture, so that from these the others might also be preserved. For seaweed becomes food for these, and they in turn for others, and again these for others, so that through the food of the last, which is supplied without interruption from the earthiness of the sea, the existence of the others is also preserved. The argument has therefore shown that the generation of plants is not for its own sake, but has come to be for the food and sustenance of humans and the other animals. And if these are for the sake of man and the animals, it is clear that the causes of their growth and generation also came to be for their sake. Therefore the movements of the stars and the heaven and the seasons and the rains and all such things came to be for these, so that, with food being supplied continuously as in a cycle, the nature of those things that bear fruit might also remain unfailing; so that these are found to be for the sake of the fruits, and the fruits for the sake of the animals and man. It remains to consider further whether the nature of irrational animals came to be for its own sake or for the sake of man. But perhaps it is absurd to say that things devoid of intelligence, living only by natural impulse, and bent down toward the earth, and indicating servitude by their form, have been brought forth for their own sake. But since there are many things that could be said on this topic, almost requiring a separate treatise because of their number, and the length of the arguments does not fit the present subject, it is fitting to come to what is concise, yet crucial. If, then, as in an image, we were to see external things reflected in man, we would be making our proofs from the very substance of the things being sought. We see, then, in our own soul the irrational part and its components, I mean desire and anger, given for service to the rational, the one ruling and the others ruled, and the one commanding and the others being commanded and serving the needs which reason may suggest, whenever man preserves what is according to nature. And if the rational part in us rules the irrational parts in us, how is it not likely that it also rules the irrational parts outside us and that they have been given to it for its needs? For the irrational is by nature ordered to serve the rational, as was shown in our own case. This is also made clear by the constitution of many animals, which has been made suitable for service to man: oxen and all beasts of burden for agriculture and carrying loads, most of the birds and aquatic and land animals for enjoyment, and the imitative ones for delight and relaxation. But if not all of them serve such needs, but some even harm man; it must be known that primarily things were made for service, and all other possible things have been created so that nothing possible to be created might be lacking in creation. Nor have these entirely escaped being of use to men, but reason also makes use of poisonous things for its own benefit. For it has used them for the therapy of the harm from those very things and for the healing of other infirmities. Such are certain preparations called antidotes, which reason has devised in order to master these things through themselves, and, as if from conquered enemies, to be benefited, and man has countless countervailing powers against these things, given by the Creator, able to restrain and defend against and correct their plots. For different things are suited to different needs; but all in common

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καὶ αὐτὰ δὲ ταῦτα τὰ σαρκοφάγα τροφὴν ποιεῖται τῶν ζῴων τὰ τὴν γῆν νεόμενα, ὡς λύκοι μὲν καὶ λέοντες ἄρνας καὶ αἶγας καὶ σῦς καὶ ἐλάφους, ἀετοὶ δὲ πέρδικας καὶ φάσσας καὶ λαγωοὺς καὶ τὰ ὅμοια, ἅτινα τοὺς καρποὺς τῆς γῆς νέμεται. καὶ γὰρ τῶν ἰχθύων ἡ φύσις, ἀλληλοφάγος οὖσα, οὐ μέχρι πάντων διήκει σαρκοφαγοῦσα, ἀλλὰ κατέληξεν ἐν τοῖς νεμομένοις φυκία καὶ ἄλλα τινὰ ἐν τῷ ὕδατι φυόμενα. εἰ γὰρ ἦν πάντα τὰ γένη τῶν ἰχθύων σαρκοφάγα, καὶ μηδὲν ἦν ἐκφεῦγον τὴν τῆς σαρκὸς σίτησιν, οὐκ ἂν οὐδ' ἐπ' ὀλίγον ἐπήρκεσεν, ἀλλὰ διεφθάρη, τὰ μὲν ὑπ' ἀλλήλων, τὰ δὲ διὰ τροφῆς ἔνδειαν. ἵνα δὲ μὴ τοῦτο γένηται, τινὲς τῶν ἰχθύων κατεσκευάσθησαν σαρκῶν μὲν ἀπεχόμενοι, τὴν δὲ ὡς ἄν τις εἴποι θαλασσίαν βοτάνην νεμόμενοι, ἵν' ἐκ τούτων καὶ τἆλλα διασώζηται. γίνεται γὰρ βορὰ μὲν τούτων τὰ φυκία, ἐκεῖνα δὲ τῶν ἄλλων, καὶ πάλιν ταῦτα τῶν ἄλλων, ὡς διὰ τὴν τῶν τελευταίων τροφὴν ἀδιαλείπτως ἐκ τοῦ γεώδους τοῦ κατὰ τὴν θάλασσαν παρεχομένην καὶ τὴν τῶν ἄλλων ὑπόστασιν σώζεσθαι. ἀπέδειξεν οὖν ὁ λόγος, τὴν τῶν φυτῶν γένεσιν μὴ δι' ἑαυτήν, ἀλλ' εἰς τροφὴν καὶ σύστασιν ἀνθρώπων καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων γεγενημένην. εἰ δὲ ταῦτα διὰ τὸν ἄνθρωπον καὶ τὰ ζῷα, δῆλον ὡς καὶ τὰ τῆς τούτων αὐξήσεως καὶ γενέσεως αἴτια διὰ ταῦτα γέγονεν. οὐκοῦν ἀστέρων κινήσεις καὶ οὐρανὸς καὶ ὧραι καὶ ὄμβροι καὶ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα διὰ ταῦτα γέγονεν, ἵνα τῶν τροφῶν, ὡς ἐν κύκλῳ, διηνεκῶς χορηγουμένων, ἀνελλιπὴς καὶ ἡ τῶν προσφερομένων τοὺς καρποὺς διαμείνῃ φύσις· ὡς εὑρίσκεσθαι ταῦτα μὲν διὰ τοὺς καρποὺς, τοὺς δὲ καρποὺς διὰ τὰ ζῷα καὶ τὸν ἄνθρωπον. λοιπόν ἐστιν ἐπιδιασκέψασθαι πότερον καὶ ἡ τῶν ἀλόγων φύσις δι' ἑαυτὴν γέγονεν ἢ διὰ τὸν ἄνθρωπον. ἀλλ' ἴσως ἄτοπον τὰ φρονήσεως ἄμοιρα καὶ καθ' ὁρμὴν φυσικὴν μόνην ζῶντα καὶ πρὸς γῆν κάτω κεκυφότα, καὶ τὴν δουλείαν διὰ τοῦ σχήματος ἐνδεικνύμενα λέγειν δι' ἑαυτὰ παρῆχθαι. πολλῶν δὲ ὄντων τῶν ἐνδεχομένων εἰς τοῦτο ῥηθῆναι, καὶ σχεδὸν ἰδίας συγγραφῆς διὰ τὸ πλῆθος δεομένων, μὴ χωρούσης τῆς προκειμένης ὑποθέσεως τὸ μῆκος τῶν λόγων, ἐπὶ τὰ σύντομα μέν, καίρια δὲ καταντῆσαι προσήκει. εἰ τοίνυν ὡς ἐν εἰκόνι τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ καὶ τὰ τῶν ἔξωθεν ἐσοπτρισθείημεν, ἐξ αὐτῆς ἂν εἴημεν τῆς τῶν ζητουμένων οὐσίας τὰς ἀποδείξεις ποιούμενοι. ὁρῶμεν οὖν ἐν τῇ καθ' ἡμᾶς ψυχῇ τὴν ἀλογίαν καὶ τὰ ταύτης μέρη, λέγω δὲ τὴν ὄρεξιν καὶ τὸν θυμόν, πρὸς ὑπηρεσίαν δεδομένα τῷ λογικῷ, καὶ τὸ μὲν ἄρχον τὰ δὲ ἀρχόμενα, καὶ τὸ μὲν κελεῦον τὰ δὲ κελευόμενα καὶ ὑπηρετούμενα ταῖς χρείαις αἷς ἂν ὁ λόγος ὑποβάλῃ, ὅταν σῴζῃ τὸ κατὰ φύσιν ὁ ἄνθρωπος. εἰ δὲ τῶν ἐν ἡμῖν ἀλόγων τὸ ἐν ἡμῖν ἄρχει λογικόν, πῶς οὐκ εἰκὸς καὶ τῶν ἔξωθεν ἀλόγων αὐτὸ κρατεῖν καὶ πρὸς τὰς χρείας αὐτῷ δεδόσθαι; ὑπηρετεῖσθαι γὰρ φύσει τέτακται τὸ ἄλογον τῷ λογικῷ, ὡς ἐν τοῖς καθ' ἡμᾶς ἐδείχθη. δηλοῖ δὲ τοῦτο καὶ ἡ τῶν πολλῶν ζῴων κατασκευή, πρὸς ὑπηρεσίαν τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ ἐπιτήδειος γενομένη, βόες μὲν καὶ πάντα τὰ νωτοφόρα πρὸς γεωργίαν καὶ ἀχθοφορίαν, τὰ πολλὰ δὲ τῶν πτηνῶν καὶ τῶν ἐνύδρων καὶ τῶν χερσαίων πρὸς ἀπόλαυσιν, τὰ δὲ μιμηλὰ πρὸς τέρψιν καὶ ἄνεσιν. εἰ δὲ μὴ πάντα ταῖς τοιαύταις χρείαις ὑπηρετεῖται, ἀλλ' ἔνια καὶ λυμαίνεται τὸν ἄνθρωπον· ἰστέον ὡς προηγου μένως τῶν δι' ὑπηρεσίαν γενομένων καὶ τἆλλα πάντα τὰ ἐνδεχόμενα κατεσκεύασται ἵνα μηδὲν ἐλλείπῃ τῇ κτίσει τῶν ἐνδεχομένων γενέσθαι. οὐδὲ ταῦτα δὲ παντάπασιν ἐκπέφευγε τὴν τῶν ἀνθρώπων ὄνησιν, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὰ δηλητηριώδη πρὸς οἰκείαν ὠφέλειαν ὁ λόγος καρποῦται. κατακέχρηται γὰρ αὐτοῖς πρὸς θεραπείαν τῆς ἐξ αὐτῶν ἐκείνων βλάβης καὶ τῆς τῶν ἄλλων ἀρρωστημάτων ἰάσεως. τοιαῦταί τινές εἰσιν αἱ θηριακαὶ καλούμεναι κατασκευαὶ ἃς ὁ λόγος ἐπενόησεν ἵνα καὶ τούτων κρατῇ δι' αὐτῶν, καὶ ὡς παρὰ τῶν πολεμίων κρατηθέντων ὠφελοῖτο, ἔχει δὲ μυρίας ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἀντιπαθεῖς τούτων δυνάμεις δεδομένας παρὰ τοῦ δημιουργοῦ εἴργειν καὶ ἀμύνεσθαι καὶ διορθοῦσθαι τὰς ἐπιβουλὰς αὐτῶν δυναμέ νας. ἄλλα μὲν γὰρ ἄλλαις ἁρμόζει χρείαις· κοινῇ δὲ πάντα