John of Damascus, Dialectic Brief Recension

19 Concerning paronyms. There are some things between homonyms and synonyms, sharing and differing in both name and definition, which are called paronyms, as from grammar, grammarian; for they share in the name, but differ in the ending of the name, that is, the last syllable; and again in definition they both share and differ, because grammar is knowledge, but the grammarian is a substance, in which the knowledge is. Paronyms are those things which, differing from something in case, that is, in the inflection of the name, have their appellation. It is necessary to know that grammar and music are not paronyms, but the musician from music and the grammarian from grammar is called paronymously, and the just man from justice. It is necessary to know that paronyms contain the things from which they are paronymously named, as the grammarian contains grammar and the just man justice, but things named from one thing do not at all; for the medical instrument does not contain medicine. 20 Concerning the ten most general genera. Of things said, some are said simply and without combination, such as substance, accident and such things, but others with combination, as "a horse runs", "Socrates philosophizes". Of things said simply and without combination, 1. one signifies substance, such as man, horse; 2. another, quantity, such as two, three, two cubits, three cubits; 3. another, relation, as father, son; 4. another, quality, as white, black; 5. another, where, as in a temple, in the marketplace; 6. another, when, as last year, today; 7. another, position, as to be standing, to be sitting; 8. another, having, as to be clothed, to be shod; 9. another, acting, as to burn, to cut; 10. another, being acted upon, as to be burned, to be cut. These ten are called categories, from being said of some things; for to predicate is to say. It is necessary to know that each of these ten is a most general genus. Therefore, of these ten categories which are also most general genera, one is substance, and the nine are accidents. And these are: substance, quantity, relation, quality, where, when, position, having, acting, being acted upon. 21 Concerning things of the same genus and same species, of different genus and different species, and differing in number. Things of the same genus are those which are arranged under the same category. Things of a different genus are those which are under a different category; these are different in genus. Things of the same species are those which are arranged under the same species and share in the definition of the substance, as Peter and Paul. Things of a different species are those differing from each other in species, that is, those that differ in the definition of the substance, as man, horse. They differ in number, as many as by the combination of accidents have defined the particularity of their own hypostasis and have their own existence, that is, the individuals, as Peter, Paul, and each of the men. Of things entirely of a different genus, the differentiae are also different in species, for example animal and knowledge; for animal belongs under substance, but knowledge under quality. Therefore, of animal the constitutive differentiae are the ensouled, the perceptive, and the divisive are the rational, the irrational, the winged, the aquatic; but of knowledge, the constitutive are existing in the ensouled and rational, and also being difficult to change, and the divisive are grammar, philosophy. For of whatever category the genus exists, of that also are the species and the differentiae of the species; but of genera and species under one another, nothing prevents the differentiae from being the same, even if not all of them. And by differentiae here I mean those constituting them. It is necessary to know that the nine

19 Περὶ παρωνύμων. Εἰσὶ δέ τινα μέσον τῶν ὁμωνύμων καὶ συνωνύμων, κοινωνοῦντα καὶ διαφέροντα τῷ τε ὀνόματι καὶ τῷ ὅρῳ, ἅτινα λέγονται παρώνυμα, ὡς ἀπὸ τῆς γραμματικῆς γραμματικός· κοινωνοῦσι γὰρ τῷ ὀνόματι, διαφέρουσι δὲ κατὰ τὴν λῆξιν τοῦ ὀνόματος ἤγουν τὴν τελευταίαν συλλαβήν· καὶ πάλιν τῷ ὅρῳ κοινωνοῦσί τε καὶ διαφέρουσιν, ὅτι ἡ μὲν γραμματικὴ γνῶσίς ἐστιν, ὁ δὲ γραμματικὸς οὐσία, ἐν ᾗ ἡ γνῶσις. Παρώνυμα δέ εἰσιν, ὅσα ἀπό τινος διαφέροντα τῇ πτώσει ἤγουν τῇ κλίσει τοῦ ὀνόματος τὴν προσηγορίαν ἔχει. ∆εῖ δὲ γινώσκειν, ὡς ἡ γραμματικὴ καὶ ἡ μουσικὴ οὔκ εἰσι παρώνυμα, ἀλλ' ὁ μουσικὸς ἐκ τῆς μουσικῆς καὶ ὁ γραμματικὸς ἐκ τῆς γραμματικῆς παρωνομάσθη καὶ ὁ δίκαιος ἐκ τῆς δικαιοσύνης. ∆εῖ δὲ γινώσκειν, ὅτι τὰ μὲν παρώνυμα περιέχουσι τὰ ἀφ' ὧν παρωνομάσθησαν ὡς ὁ γραμματικὸς τὴν γραμματικὴν καὶ ὁ δίκαιος τὴν δικαιοσύνην, τὰ δὲ ἀφ' ἑνὸς οὐδαμῶς· οὐ γὰρ περιέχει τὸ ἰατρικὸν ἐργαλεῖον τὴν ἰατρικήν. 20 Περὶ τῶν δέκα γενικωτάτων γενῶν. Τῶν λεγομένων τὰ μὲν ἁπλῶς καὶ ἄνευ συμπλοκῆς λέγεται ὡς οὐσία, συμβεβηκὸς καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα, τὰ δὲ μετὰ συμπλοκῆς, ὡς ἵππος τρέχει, Σωκράτης φιλοσοφεῖ. Τῶν δὲ ἁπλῶς λεγομένων καὶ ἄνευ συμπλοκῆς αʹ τὸ μὲν οὐσίαν σημαίνει οἷον ἄνθρωπος, ἵππος· βʹ τὸ δὲ ποσὸν οἷον δύο, τρία, δίπηχυ, τρίπηχυ· γʹ τὸ δὲ πρός τι ὡς πατήρ, υἱός· δʹ τὸ δὲ ποιὸν ὡς λευκόν, μέλαν· εʹ τὸ δὲ ποῦ ὡς ἐν ναῷ, ἐν ἀγορᾷ· ϛʹ τὸ δὲ ποτὲ ὡς πέρυσι, σήμερον· ζʹ τὸ δὲ κεῖσθαι ὡς τὸ ἵστασθαι, καθῆσθαι· ηʹ τὸ δὲ ἔχειν ὡς τὸ ἐνδεδύσθαι, ὑποδεδύσθαι· θʹ τὸ δὲ ποιεῖν ὡς τὸ καίειν, τέμνειν· ιʹ τὸ δὲ πάσχειν ὡς τὸ καίεσθαι, τέμνεσθαι. Αὗται αἱ δέκα λέγονται κατηγορίαι ὡς ἐκ τοῦ λέγεσθαι κατά τινων· τὸ γὰρ ἀγορεύειν λέγειν ἐστίν. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὅτι ἕκαστον τούτων τῶν δέκα γενικώτατον γένος ἐστί. Τούτων οὖν τῶν δέκα κατηγοριῶν τῶν καὶ γενικωτάτων γενῶν ἡ μὲν μία οὐσία ἐστίν, αἱ δὲ ἐννέα συμβεβηκότα. Εἰσὶ δὲ αὗται· οὐσία, ποσόν, πρός τι, ποιόν, ποῦ, ποτέ, κεῖσθαι, ἔχειν, ποιεῖν, πάσχειν. 21 Περὶ ὁμογενῶν καὶ ὁμοειδῶν ἑτερογενῶν τε καὶ ἑτεροειδῶν καὶ ἀριθμῷ διαφερόντων. Ὁμογενῆ εἰσιν, ὅσα ὑπὸ τὴν αὐτὴν κατηγορίαν τάσσεται. Ἑτερογενῆ δέ εἰσιν, ὅσα ὑπ' ἄλλην καὶ ἄλλην κατηγορίαν εἰσίν· ταῦτα ἕτερα τῷ γένει εἰσίν. Ὁμοειδῆ δέ εἰσιν, ὅσα ὑπὸ τὸ αὐτὸ εἶδος τάσσεται καὶ κοινωνοῦσι τῷ λόγῳ τῆς οὐσίας ὡς Πέτρος καὶ Παῦλος. Ἑτεροειδῆ εἰσι τὰ τῷ εἴδει διαφέροντα ἀλλήλων ἤγουν ὅσα τῷ λόγῳ τῆς οὐσίας διαφέρουσιν ὡς ἄνθρωπος, ἵππος. Ἀριθμῷ δὲ διαφέρουσιν, ὅσα τῇ συμπλοκῇ τῶν συμβεβηκότων τὴν ἰδιότητα τῆς οἰκείας ὑποστάσεως ἀφωρίσαντο καὶ τὴν καθ' αὑτὸ ἐσχήκασιν ὕπαρξιν ἤγουν τὰ ἄτομα ὡς Πέτρος, Παῦλος καὶ ἕκαστος τῶν ἀνθρώπων. Τῶν πάντῃ ἑτερογενῶν ἕτεραι τῷ εἴδει καὶ αἱ διαφοραὶ οἷον ζῷον καὶ ἐπιστήμη· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ζῷον ὑπὸ τὴν οὐσίαν τελεῖ, ἡ δὲ ἐπιστήμη ὑπὸ τὸ ποιόν. Τοῦ μὲν οὖν ζῴου διαφοραὶ συστατικαὶ μὲν τὸ ἔμψυχον, τὸ αἰσθητικόν, διαιρετικαὶ δὲ τὸ λογικόν, τὸ ἄλογον, τὸ πτηνόν, τὸ ἔνυδρον· τῆς δὲ ἐπιστήμης συστατικαὶ μὲν τὸ τοῖς ἐμψύχοις καὶ λογικοῖς ἐνυπάρχειν, ἔτι δὲ καὶ τὸ δυσμετάβλητον, διαιρετικαὶ δὲ γραμματική, φιλοσοφία. Ἧς γὰρ κατηγορίας ὑπάρχει τὸ γένος, ἐκείνης καὶ τὸ εἶδος καὶ αἱ τοῦ εἴδους διαφοραί· τῶν δὲ ὑπ' ἄλληλα γενῶν τε καὶ εἰδῶν οὐδὲν κωλύει τὰς αὐτὰς εἶναι διαφοράς, εἰ καὶ μὴ πάσας. ∆ιαφορὰς δὲ ἐνταῦθά φημι τὰς συνιστώσας αὐτά. Χρὴ δὲ γινώσκειν, ὅτι αἱ ἐννέα