in particulars and in individuals, in which indeed there is also a lack of power because of the subsidence of being and an increase of division, as unity is obscured. 56 But in general, evil is one thing in souls, another in bodies, and of these, <that in souls> is twofold, the one a disease, the other a deformity, <as the Eleatic stranger somewhere says> [Pl. soph. 228]. Deformity is ignorance and privation of intellect, while disease in the soul is faction and a lack of the life according to reason. ---, but each of these is again twofold; for deformity is one thing concerning the discursive intellect, another concerning opinion, since knowledge is also different, and in one case it is a lack of scientific knowledge, in another a lack of art. And furthermore, disease is one thing <in the knowledges, and another> in the impulses--- 57 Evil, then, must be divided in so many ways, since the measures of beings are also in these three principles: nature, soul, and intellect; and the immeasurable is a privation either of the principles in nature or of those in soul or of those in intellect .... for that which orders each thing is better than the things ordered--- 58 But one might ask how and from where evils exist at all, if there is providence. For if evil exists, how will it not stand against that which provides for the good? Or if the universe is full of providence, how is evil among the things that exist? Some, then, have yielded to one of the arguments, that not all things come from providence--- and first, evil itself in souls, if it were unmixed with its opposite, being utterly without share in it and most without light and nothing other than darkness, perhaps it would be an impediment to the works of providence, from which all things are good, and nothing base [Pl. Tim. 30a]; but if, <as has often been said>, this evil is also good and not unmixedly evil nor evil-in-itself, but evil in this particular case, but not simply evil, one must not destroy either its being evil completely because of its participation in the good, nor, because of the badness in it, that up to this point all things both are and become good. --- 59 --- <and this> is for the sufferer a beginning of salvation. For in many people, evil, when practiced and remaining within the soul, is hidden---, but when it has been done ... it becomes manifest; and ... the understandings of the soul reveal it, as if she herself reproaches herself for what was done; since also the arts of physicians, by the opening up of wounds, bringing into the open both the affliction and the disease-causing agent hidden within, provide an image of the works of providence, which allows souls to proceed to passions and shameful actions, so that, being delivered from the pain and festering ... disposition within them, they might receive a beginning of a cycle and a better life. And whatever of these are inward passions of souls doing evil to themselves have the good, insofar as it always leads the soul toward what is proper to it; for it is not possible for one who has chosen the worse things to remain among the better, but she is immediately carried to the dark and shameful; and not only the actions, but even apart from these, the choices of the soul have their punishment in themselves; for every choice leads her toward what is like herself. If, therefore, the worse and shameful and godless kind in the soul transfers her to what is akin to it, she immediately has in herself as good the worth assigned by providence, and this is the law in souls, leading each to what is proper to it. For the one puts forth its life, while the other joins itself to its likes; and this is the same as being according to worth, and this as according to justice, and this as from providence, and this as with the good. For if it were possible for them, even when acting with insolence, to remain <above> ..., their choice would in no way have what is well; and being only evil, it would be entirely godless and unjust. But if it immediately removes the one who has chosen from the better things, it has the good from this point mixed with the evil; for every soul somehow by nature strives for what is above. Therefore, to those that have fallen the shamefulness of the life in them appears; and every soul must fall, for which acting is not according to intellect, and for some the fall is more, for others less, since the choice is also different for different souls. 60 But how is evil in bodies at the same time also good, or how does it exist for the whole according to nature, but for the part contrary to nature, or rather <for this too> insofar as it contributes to the all it is according to nature, but insofar as it is divided from there it is contrary to nature? And since evil in bodies is also twofold, the one as deformity, the other as disease [Pl. soph. 228 e]—and I call deformities all things that are contrary to

ἐν τοῖς καθέκαστα καὶ τοῖς ἀτόμοις, ἐν οἷς δὴ καὶ ἡ τῆς δυνάμεως ἔλλειψις διὰ τὴν τοῦ εἶναι ὕφεσιν καὶ ἡ τῆς διαιρέ- σεως ἐπίδοσις, ἀμυδρουμένης τῆς ἑνώσεως. 56 Ὅλως δὲ τὸ κακὸν ἄλλο μὲν τὸ ἐν ψυχαῖς, ἄλλο δὲ τὸ ἐν σώμασι, καὶ τούτων <τὸ ἐν ψυχαῖς> διττόν, τὸ μὲν νόσος, τὸ δὲ αἶσχος, <ὡς πού φησιν ὁ Ἐλεάτης ξένος> [Pl. soph. 228]. ἔστι δὲ αἶσχος μὲν ἄγνοια καὶ τοῦ νοῦ στέρησις, νόσος δ' ἐν ψυχῇ στάσις καὶ ἔλλειψις τῆς κατὰ λόγον ζωῆς. ---, ἀλλὰ καὶ τούτων ἕκαστον αὖθις διττόν· καὶ γὰρ τὸ αἶσχος ἄλλως μέν ἐστι περὶ διάνοιαν, ἄλλως δὲ περὶ τὴν δόξαν, ἐπεὶ καὶ ἡ γνῶσις ἑτέρα, καί που μὲν ἐπιστήμης, ποὺ δὲ τέχνης ἔνδεια. πρὸς δὲ καὶ νόσος ἄλλως μὲν <ἐν ταῖς γνώσεσιν, ἄλλως δὲ> ἐν ταῖς ὁρμαῖς--- 57 Τοσαυταχῶς οὖν τὸ κακὸν διαιρετέον, ἐπεὶ καὶ τὰ μέτρα τῶν ὄντων ἐν τρισὶ ταύταις ἐστὶν ἀρχαῖς, φύσει καὶ ψυχῇ καὶ νῷ· καὶ τὸ ἄμετρον ἢ τῶν ἐν φύσει λόγων ἐστὶ στέρησις ἢ τῶν ἐν ψυχῇ ἢ τῶν ἐν νῷ .... καὶ γὰρ τὸ κοσμοῦν ἕκαστα κρεῖττον ἐστὶ τῶν κοσμουμένων--- 58 Ἀπορήσειεν δ' ἄν τις πῶς καὶ πόθεν ὅλως ἐστὶ τὰ κακά, προνοίας οὔσης. εἴτε γάρ ἐστι τὸ κακόν, πῶς τῷ προνοοῦντι πρὸς τὸ ἀγαθὸν οὐκ ἐνστήσεται; εἴτε προνοίας πλῆρες τὸ πᾶν, πῶς ἐν τοῖς οὖσι τὸ κακόν; ἔνιοι μὲν οὖν θατέρῳ τῶν λόγων ἐνέδοσαν, τῷ μὲν μὴ πάντα ἐκ προ- νοίας--- καὶ πρῶτον αὐτὸ καθ' αὑτὸ τὸ ἐν ψυχαῖς κακόν, εἰ ἀμιγὲς ἦν πρὸς τὸ ἐναντίον, ἄμοιρον τούτου παντάπασιν ὂν καὶ ἀφεγγέστατον καὶ οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἢ σκότος, τάχα ἂν τοῖς τῆς προνοίας ἔργοις ἐμπόδιον ἦν, παρ' ἧς πάντα ἀγαθά, φλαῦρον δὲ οὐδέν [πλ. τιμ. 30α]· εἰ δέ, <ὥσπερ εἴρηται πολλάκις>, τοῦτο τὸ κακὸν καὶ ἀγαθόν ἐστι καὶ οὐκ ἀκράτως κακὸν οὐδὲ αὐτοκακόν, ἀλλὰ τωδὶ μὲν κακόν, ἁπλῶς δὲ οὐ κακόν, οὐκ ἀναιρετέον οὔτε διὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ μέθεξιν τὸ εἶναι αὐτὸ κακὸν παν- τελῶς, οὔτε διὰ τὴν ἐν αὐτῷ κάκην τὸ καὶ μέχρι τούτου πάντα ἀγαθὰ καὶ εἶναι καὶ γίνεσθαι. --- 59 --- <τοῦτο δὲ> τῷ παθόντι σωτηρίας ἀρχή. πολλοῖς γὰρ τὸ κακὸν μελετώ- μενον μὲν καὶ εἴσω ψυχῆς μένον κέκρυπται---, πεπραγμένον δὲ ... κατάδηλον γίνεται· δηλοῦσιν δὲ ... καὶ αἱ τῆς ψυχῆς συνέσεις οἷον αὐτῆς ὀνειδιζούσης ἑαυτῇ τὸ πραχθέν· ἐπεὶ καὶ ἰατρῶν τέχναι ταῖς τῶν ἑλκῶν ἀναστομώσεσιν εἰς τοὐμφανὲς ἄγουσαι τό τε πάθος καὶ τὴν εἴσω κρυπτομένην νοσοποιὸν αἰτίαν, εἰκόνα παρέχονται τῶν ἔργων τῆς προ-νοίας ἐφιείσης ψυχὰς πάθεσί τε καὶ ποιήσεσιν αἰσχραῖς, ἵνα τῆς ἐν αὐταῖς ὠδῖνος καὶ ὑπούλου ... ἕξεως ἀπαλλαγεῖσαι λάβωσιν ἀρχὴν περιόδου καὶ ζωῆς κρείττονος. ὅσα δὲ ἔνδον καὶ τούτων ἐστὶ πάθη ἑαυτὰς κακυνουσῶν ἔχει τὸ ἀγαθόν, καθὸ ἀεὶ πρὸς τὸ οἰκεῖον ἄγει τὴν ψυχήν· οὐ γάρ ἐστι τὰ χείρονα ἑλομένην μένειν ἐν τοῖς κρείττοσιν, ἀλλ' εὐθὺς ἐπὶ τὸ σκοτεινὸν καὶ αἰσχρὸν φέρεται· καὶ οὐχ αἱ πράξεις μόνον, ἀλλὰ καὶ τούτων χωρὶς αἱ τῆς ψυχῆς αἱρέσεις ἔχουσιν ἐν αὐταῖς τὴν δίκην· πᾶσα γὰρ αἵρεσις πρὸς τὸ ὅμοιον ἄγει αὐτήν. εἰ οὖν τὸ χεῖρον καὶ αἰσχρὸν καὶ ἄθεον ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ γένος ἐπὶ τὸ συγγενὲς μεθίστησιν αὐτήν, ἔχει εὐθὺς ἐν αὐτῇ ἀγαθὸν τὴν ἐκ προνοίας ἀξίαν, καὶ οὗτος ὁ ἐν ταῖς ψυχαῖς νόμος ἄγων ἑκάστην πρὸς τὸ οἰκεῖον. ἡ μὲν γὰρ προβάλλει τὴν ζωήν, ἡ δὲ συνάπτει ἑαυτὴν τοῖς ὁμοίοις· τὸ δὲ τῷ κατ' ἀξίαν εἶναι ταὐτόν, τὸ δὲ τῷ κατὰ δίκην, τὸ δὲ τῷ ἐκ προνοίας, τὸ δὲ τῷ ἀγαθῷ. εἰ μὲν γὰρ καὶ ἐξυβριζού-σαις αὐταῖς ἦν <ἐπάνω> μένειν ..., οὐδαμῶς ἂν εἶχεν αὐταῖς ἡ αἵρεσις τὸ εὖ· μόνως δὲ οὖσα κακόν, ἦν ἂν ἄθεος πάντῃ καὶ ἄδικος. εἰ δ' εὐθὺς τὴν ἑλομένην ἀφίστησι τῶν κρειττόνων, ἔχει τὸ ἀγαθὸν ἐντεῦθεν συμ-μιγὲς τῷ κακῷ· πᾶσα γὰρ ψυχὴ τοῦ ἄνω ὀρέγεταί πως κατὰ φύσιν. πεσούσαις οὖν αὐταῖς τὸ αἰσχρὸν φαίνεται τῆς ἐν αὐταῖς ζωῆς· πίπτειν δὲ ἀνάγκη πᾶσαν, ᾗ τὸ ἐνεργεῖν μὴ κατὰ τὸν νοῦν, καὶ ταῖς μὲν μᾶλλον, ταῖς δὲ ἧττον πτῶσις, ἐπεὶ καὶ ἡ αἵρεσις ἄλλως ἄλλαις. 60 Ἀλλὰ πῶς τὸ ἐν σώμασι κακὸν ἅμα καὶ ἀγαθόν ἐστιν, ἢ ὡς ὑπάρχον τῷ μὲν ὅλῳ κατὰ φύσιν, τῷ δὲ μέρει παρὰ φύσιν, μᾶλλον δὲ <καὶ τούτῳ> καθ' ὅσον μὲν εἰς τὸ πᾶν τελεῖ κατὰ φύσιν, καθ' ὅσον δὲ μεμέρισται ἐκεῖθεν παρὰ φύσιν; ἐπεὶ δὲ καὶ τὸ ἐν σώμασι κακὸν διττόν, τὸ μὲν ὡς αἶσχος, τὸ δὲ ὡς νόσος [Pl. soph. 228 e]-καλῶ δὲ αἴσχη πάντα ὅσα παρὰ