John of Damascus, Dialectic Fuller Recension

is named paronymously from grammar, and the just man from justice. It is necessary to know that paronyms contain those things from which they are paronymously named, as the grammarian [contains] grammar and the just man justice, but things [named] from one thing [do] not at all; for the medical instrument does not contain medicine. 37 About the ten most general genera. Of things said, some are said simply and without combination, such as substance, accident, and such things, while others [are said] with combination, such as 'a horse runs', 'Socrates philosophizes'. Of things said simply and without combination, 1. one signifies substance, such as man, horse; 2. another quantity, such as two, three, two-cubits, three-cubits; 3. another relation, as father, son; 4. another quality, as white, black; 5. another where, as in a temple, in a marketplace; 6. another when, as last year, today; 7. another position, as to be standing, to be sitting; 8. another having, as to be clothed, to be shod; 9. another doing, as to burn, to cut; 10. another being affected, as to be burned, to be cut. These ten are called categories as from being said of certain things; for ἀγορεύειν is to say. It is necessary to know that each of these ten is a most general genus. Of these ten categories, which are also the most general genera, one is substance, and the nine are accidents. And these are: substance, quantity, relation, quality, where, when, position, having, doing, being affected. 38 About things of the same genus and same species, of different genus and different species, and differing in number. Things of the same genus are those that are placed under the same category. Things of a different genus are those that are under one and another category; these are different in genus. Things of the same species are those that are placed under the same species and share in the definition of the substance, as Peter and Paul. Things of a different species are those differing from one another in species, that is, those that differ in the definition of the substance, as man, horse. They differ in number, which by the combination of accidents have defined the particularity of their own hypostasis and have their own existence, that is, the individuals, as Peter, Paul, and each of the men. For things entirely of a different genus, the differentiae are also different in kind, for example animal and knowledge; for animal falls under substance, while knowledge falls under quality. Therefore, of animal the constitutive differentiae are being ensouled, being capable of sensation, and the divisive are rational, irrational, winged, aquatic; but of knowledge the constitutive [differentiae] are existing in ensouled and rational beings, and also being difficult to change, and the divisive are grammar, philosophy. For of whatever category the genus is, of that also is the species and the differentiae of the species; but for genera and species under one another, nothing prevents the differentiae from being the same, even if not all of them. And by differentiae here I mean those that constitute them. It is necessary to know that each of the nine categories besides substance, even though they are accidents, has constitutive and divisive differentiae, and each of them is a most general genus and has both species and subordinate genera and most specific species. For in every case, where there is a genus, there are also divisive differentiae; for these are what divide the genera into species; and, where there are species, there are also constitutive differentiae; for these are what constitute the species. 'The one' is taken in three ways: either in genus, as when we say man and horse are one and the same in genus; for they are under one genus, under animal; or in species, as when we say Socrates and Plato, being under one species, under man, are one and the same in species; or in number, as when we say Socrates is one in himself, separated from the rest of men. 39 About 'in something'. 'In something' [is said] in eleven ways: 1. as genus in species, as animal in the definition of man, being the genus of man; 2. as species in genus, as man in the division of animal; 3. in a place, as a priest in the temple; 4. in time, as Noah in the time of the flood; 5. in a vessel, as wine in a mixing-bowl; 6. as a whole in its parts, as Socrates in his own limbs, head and hands and feet; but this is not 'in something' but 'in some things'; 7. as a part in a whole, as a head, a hand in Socrates; 8. as form in matter, as the form of the statue in the bronze; 9. as in the efficient cause, as all things in God; 10. as in the final cause

τῆς γραμματικῆς παρωνομάσθη καὶ ὁ δίκαιος ἐκ τῆς δικαιοσύνης. ∆εῖ δὲ γινώσκειν, ὅτι τὰ μὲν παρώνυμα περιέχουσι τὰ ἀφ' ὧν παρωνομάσθησαν ὡς ὁ γραμματικὸς τὴν γραμματικὴν καὶ ὁ δίκαιος τὴν δικαιοσύνην, τὰ δὲ ἀφ' ἑνὸς οὐδαμῶς· οὐ γὰρ περιέχει τὸ ἰατρικὸν ἐργαλεῖον τὴν ἰατρικήν. 37 Περὶ τῶν δέκα γενικωτάτων γενῶν. Τῶν λεγομένων τὰ μὲν ἁπλῶς καὶ ἄνευ συμπλοκῆς λέγεται ὡς οὐσία, συμβεβηκὸς καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα, τὰ δὲ μετὰ συμπλοκῆς, ὡς ἵππος τρέχει, Σωκράτης φιλοσοφεῖ. Τῶν δὲ ἁπλῶς λεγομένων καὶ ἄνευ συμπλοκῆς αʹ τὸ μὲν οὐσίαν σημαίνει οἷον ἄνθρωπος, ἵππος· βʹ τὸ δὲ ποσὸν οἷον δύο, τρία, δίπηχυ, τρίπηχυ· γʹ τὸ δὲ πρός τι ὡς πατήρ, υἱός· δʹ τὸ δὲ ποιὸν ὡς λευκόν, μέλαν· εʹ τὸ δὲ ποῦ ὡς ἐν ναῷ, ἐν ἀγορᾷ· ʹ τὸ δὲ ποτὲ ὡς πέρυσι, σήμερον· ζʹ τὸ δὲ κεῖσθαι ὡς τὸ ἵστασθαι, καθῆσθαι· ηʹ τὸ δὲ ἔχειν ὡς τὸ ἐνδεδύσθαι, ὑποδεδύσθαι· θʹ τὸ δὲ ποιεῖν ὡς τὸ καίειν, τέμνειν· ιʹ τὸ δὲ πάσχειν ὡς τὸ καίεσθαι, τέμνεσθαι. Αὗται αἱ δέκα λέγονται κατηγορίαι ὡς ἐκ τοῦ λέγεσθαι κατά τινων· τὸ γὰρ ἀγορεύειν λέγειν ἐστίν. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὅτι ἕκαστον τούτων τῶν δέκα γενικώτατον γένος ἐστί. Τούτων οὖν τῶν δέκα κατηγοριῶν τῶν καὶ γενικωτάτων γενῶν ἡ μὲν μία οὐσία ἐστίν, αἱ δὲ ἐννέα συμβεβηκότα. Εἰσὶ δὲ αὗται· οὐσία, ποσόν, πρός τι, ποιόν, ποῦ, ποτέ, κεῖσθαι, ἔχειν, ποιεῖν, πάσχειν. 38 Περὶ ὁμογενῶν καὶ ὁμοειδῶν ἑτερογενῶν τε καὶ ἑτεροειδῶν καὶ ἀριθμῷ διαφερόντων. Ὁμογενῆ εἰσιν, ὅσα ὑπὸ τὴν αὐτὴν κατηγορίαν τάσσεται. Ἑτερογενῆ δέ εἰσιν, ὅσα ὑπ' ἄλλην καὶ ἄλλην κατηγορίαν εἰσίν· ταῦτα ἕτερα τῷ γένει εἰσίν. Ὁμοειδῆ δέ εἰσιν, ὅσα ὑπὸ τὸ αὐτὸ εἶδος τάσσεται καὶ κοινωνοῦσι τῷ λόγῳ τῆς οὐσίας ὡς Πέτρος καὶ Παῦλος. Ἑτεροειδῆ εἰσι τὰ τῷ εἴδει διαφέροντα ἀλλήλων ἤγουν ὅσα τῷ λόγῳ τῆς οὐσίας διαφέρουσιν ὡς ἄνθρωπος, ἵππος. Ἀριθμῷ δὲ διαφέρουσιν, ὅσα τῇ συμπλοκῇ τῶν συμβεβηκότων τὴν ἰδιότητα τῆς οἰκείας ὑποστάσεως ἀφωρίσαντο καὶ τὴν καθ' αὑτὸ ἐσχήκασιν ὕπαρξιν ἤγουν τὰ ἄτομα ὡς Πέτρος, Παῦλος καὶ ἕκαστος τῶν ἀνθρώπων. Τῶν πάντῃ ἑτερογενῶν ἕτεραι τῷ εἴδει καὶ αἱ διαφοραὶ οἷον ζῷον καὶ ἐπιστήμη· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ζῷον ὑπὸ τὴν οὐσίαν τελεῖ, ἡ δὲ ἐπιστήμη ὑπὸ τὸ ποιόν. Τοῦ μὲν οὖν ζῴου διαφοραὶ συστατικαὶ μὲν τὸ ἔμψυχον, τὸ αἰσθητικόν, διαιρετικαὶ δὲ τὸ λογικόν, τὸ ἄλογον, τὸ πτηνόν, τὸ ἔνυδρον· τῆς δὲ ἐπιστήμης συστατικαὶ μὲν τὸ τοῖς ἐμψύχοις καὶ λογικοῖς ἐνυπάρχειν, ἔτι δὲ καὶ τὸ δυσμετάβλητον, διαιρετικαὶ δὲ γραμματική, φιλοσοφία. Ἧς γὰρ κατηγορίας ὑπάρχει τὸ γένος, ἐκείνης καὶ τὸ εἶδος καὶ αἱ τοῦ εἴδους διαφοραί· τῶν δὲ ὑπ' ἄλληλα γενῶν τε καὶ εἰδῶν οὐδὲν κωλύει τὰς αὐτὰς εἶναι διαφοράς, εἰ καὶ μὴ πάσας. ∆ιαφορὰς δὲ ἐνταῦθά φημι τὰς συνιστώσας αὐτά. Χρὴ δὲ γινώσκειν, ὅτι αἱ ἐννέα κατηγορίαι αἱ ἐκτὸς τῆς οὐσίας ἔχουσιν ἑκάστη, εἰ καὶ συμβεβηκότα εἰσί, συστατικὰς καὶ διαιρετικὰς διαφορὰς καὶ ἑκάστη αὐτῶν γενικώτατον γένος ἐστὶ καὶ ἔχει καὶ εἴδη καὶ γένη ὑπάλληλα καὶ εἰδικώτατα εἴδη. Πάντως γάρ, ὅτι, ἔνθα γένος, καὶ διαφοραὶ διαιρετικαί εἰσιν· αὗται γάρ εἰσιν αἱ διαιροῦσαι τὰ γένη εἰς εἴδη· καί, ἔνθα εἴδη, εἰσὶ καὶ συστατικαὶ διαφοραί· αὗται γάρ εἰσιν αἱ συνιστῶσαι τὰ εἴδη. Τὸ ἓν τριχῶς λαμβάνεται· ἢ γένει, οἷόν φαμεν ἄνθρωπον καὶ ἵππον ἓν τῷ γένει καὶ ταὐτόν· ὑφ' ἓν γὰρ γένος εἰσίν, ὑπὸ τὸ ζῷον· ἢ εἴδει, ὡς Σωκράτην φαμὲν καὶ Πλάτωνα ὑφ' ἓν εἶδος ὄντας, ὑπὸ τὸν ἄνθρωπον, ἓν εἶναι τῷ εἴδει καὶ ταὐτόν· ἢ ἀριθμῷ, ὡς Σωκράτην φαμὲν ἕνα εἶναι καθ' αὑτὸν τῶν λοιπῶν ἀνθρώπων κεχωρισμένον. 39 Περὶ τοῦ ἔν τινι. Τὸ ἔν τινι ἑνδεκαχῶς· αʹ ὡς γένος ἐν εἴδει ὡς τὸ ζῷον ἐν τῷ ὁρισμῷ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου γένος ὂν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου· βʹ ὡς εἶδος ἐν γένει ὡς ἄνθρωπος ἐν τῇ διαιρέσει τοῦ ζῴου· γʹ ἐν τόπῳ ὡς ἱερεὺς ἐν τῷ ναῷ· δʹ ἐν χρόνῳ ὡς Νῶε ἐν τῷ καιρῷ τοῦ κατακλυσμοῦ· εʹ ἐν ἀγγείῳ ὡς οἶνος ἐν κρατῆρι· ʹ ὡς ὅλον ἐν μέρεσιν ὡς Σωκράτης ἐν τοῖς οἰκείοις μέλεσι κεφαλῇ τε καὶ χερσὶ καὶ ποσί· τοῦτο δὲ οὐκ ἔστιν ἔν τινι ἀλλ' ἔν τισιν· ζʹ ὡς μέρος ἐν ὅλῳ ὡς κεφαλή, χεὶρ ἐν Σωκράτει· ηʹ ὡς εἶδος ἐν ὕλῃ ὡς τὸ εἶδος τοῦ ἀνδριάντος ἐν τῷ χαλκῷ· θʹ ὡς ἐν τῷ ποιητικῷ αἰτίῳ ὡς τὰ πάντα ἐν τῷ θεῷ· ιʹ ὡς ἐν τῷ τελικῷ αἰτίῳ