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acquired is the heat, nor to the honey the sweetness, nor, not being such before, did they later acquire the heat and the sweetness, but nevertheless they produce the same effect according to our sensation; for fire, being hot, heats us, and honey, being sweet, sweetens us; -but some have come into being from some affection, that is, a mixture, and sometimes produce an effect according to our sensation, but not the same effect and the same quality which they have, such as are colors; for white, coming to be from some affection and mixture, produces an effect on the vision, that is, the distinction and diffusion and illumination, but it does not whiten us. The affective quality, therefore, which is not acquired, either inheres in the whole species, as heat in all fire, or not in the whole, as blackness in Ethiopians; for not all men are black. But these things are considered not only concerning the body but also concerning the soul. The fourth species of quality is shape and form. So shape is applied to animate and inanimate things, but form only to animate things. And if form or 'well-formed' is said of inanimate things, it is said not in the proper sense but improperly. Therefore shape is more general; for form is also called shape. But the shape of inanimate things is not called form. And straightness, that is, rightness, and crookedness, that is, twistedness, belong to quality. One must know that qualitied things are for the most part paronymously named from qualities, as from heat, 'hot', but some are also homonymously named, as musical knowledge and a musical woman who has musical knowledge, and some, though rarely, heteronymously, as from virtue, 'virtuous'; for the virtuous man is called 'virtuous'. One must know that affection is twofold; for it is spoken of either in having already been affected, and is referred to quality, as a garment that has already been whitened is called white, or in now being affected, and is referred to the category of being affected, as that which has not yet been whitened but is now being whitened. One must know that qualities are not bodies but incorporeal. For if they were bodies, they would be under substance; and all accidents are incorporeal and in themselves non-existent, unless they are considered in a substance. One must know that essential qualities are referred to substance; for they are parts of it, as dividing it and are taken into the definition of its species, and under whichever category the whole is, under this its parts will also be referred. Heavy and light are either considered in volumes, as in the case of things being weighed, and are referred to quantity, or in substance, as in the elements, that is, fire and earth, and are referred to substance as essential differentiae, likewise also dense and sparse, that is, rare; for either essentially in the elements and are referred to substance, or adventitiously in garments and are referred to the category of posture, for they exist by position. And there are three properties of quality, that is, concomitants; first, to admit of contrariety; for hot is contrary to cold and white to black; second, the more and the less; for where there is contrariety, there is also found the more and the less. The more is an intensification, and the less a remission. It is possible therefore to say this form is whiter than that and less cold. The third concomitant, which is also most proper to the qualified, is the like and unlike. But one must know that shape does not have a contrary. One must know that not all privations are stated negatively, but there are also privations stated affirmatively, as blindness and deafness. And again not every form is named affirmatively but also negatively, just as intemperance, being a form, was named not affirmatively but negatively; for a positing is called an affirmation, such as 'he is good', while a denial is a negation, such as 'he is not good'; but when we say 'you are lawless', the 'a' signifies a denial, just as 'not'. But if it is said that this white thing is equal to that white thing, not insofar as it is a quality

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ἐπίκτητος ἡ θερμότης οὐδὲ τῷ μέλιτι ἡ γλυκύτης, οὔτε πρότερον μὴ ὄντα τοιαῦτα ὕστερον προσε λάβοντο τὴν θερμότητα καὶ τὴν γλυκύτητα, ὅμως δὲ τὸ αὐτὸ πάθος ποιοῦσι κατὰ τὴν ἡμετέραν αἴσθησιν· τὸ μὲν γὰρ πῦρ θερμὸν ὂν θερμαίνει ἡμᾶς καὶ τὸ μέλι γλυκὺ ὂν γλυκαίνει ἡμᾶς· -τινὲς δὲ ἀπό τινος πάθους ἤγουν κράσεως γεγόνασι καὶ ποιοῦσιν ἐνίοτε πάθος κατὰ τὴν ἡμετέραν αἴσθησιν ἀλλ' οὐ τὸ αὐτὸ πάθος καὶ τὴν αὐτὴν ποιότητα, ἣν ἔχουσιν, οἷά εἰσι τὰ χρώματα· τὸ γὰρ λευκὸν ἔκ τινος πάθους καὶ κράσεως γινόμενον πάθος μὲν ποιεῖ περὶ τὴν ὅρασιν ἤγουν τὴν διάκρισιν καὶ ἐξάπλωσιν καὶ φωτισμόν, οὐ λευκαίνει δὲ ἡμᾶς. Ἡ οὖν παθητικὴ ἡ μὴ οὖσα ἐπίκτητος ἢ παντὶ τῷ εἴδει ἐνυπάρχει ὡς ἡ θερμότης ὅλῳ τῷ πυρί, ἢ οὐ παντὶ ὡς ἡ μελανία τοῖς Αἰθίοψιν· οὐ γὰρ πάντες οἱ ἄνθρωποι μέλανες. Ταῦτα δὲ οὐ μόνον περὶ σῶμα θεωρεῖται ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ ψυχήν. Τέταρτον εἶδος ποιότητος σχῆμα καὶ μορφή. Τὸ μὲν οὖν σχῆμα ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμψύχων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀψύχων φέρεται, ἡ δὲ μορφὴ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμψύχων μόνον. Εἰ δὲ ῥηθῇ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀψύχων μορφὴ ἢ εὔμορφον, οὐ κυρίως ἀλλὰ καταχρηστικῶς λέγεται. Καθολικώτερον οὖν ἐστι τὸ σχῆμα· καὶ ἡ μορφὴ γὰρ καλεῖται σχῆμα. Τὸ δὲ τῶν ἀψύχων σχῆμα οὐ καλεῖται μορφή. Ἡ δὲ εὐθύτης ἤγουν ὀρθότης καὶ ἡ καμπυλότης ἤγουν στρεβλότης τῆς ποιότητός εἰσιν. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὅτι τὰ ποιὰ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πλεῖστον παρωνύμως ἀπὸ τῶν ποιοτήτων λέγονται ὡς ἀπὸ τῆς θερμότητος θερμόν, τινὰ δὲ καὶ ὁμωνύμως ὡς μουσικὴ ἐπιστήμη καὶ μουσικὴ γυνὴ ἡ ἔχουσα τὴν μουσικὴν ἐπιστήμην, τινὰ δέ, εἰ καὶ σπανίως, ἑτερωνύμως ὡς ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρετῆς σπουδαῖος· ὁ γὰρ ἐνάρετος σπουδαῖος λέγεται. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὅτι τὸ πάθος διττόν· ἢ γὰρ ἐν τῷ ἤδη πεπονθέναι λέγεται, καὶ ἀνάγεται ὑπὸ τὴν ποιότητα, ὡς τὸ ἤδη λελευκασμένον ἱμάτιον λέγεται λευκόν, ἢ ἐν τῷ νῦν πάσχειν, καὶ ἀνάγεται ὑπὸ τὴν τοῦ πάσχειν κατηγορίαν, ὡς τὸ μήπω λευκανθὲν ἀλλὰ νῦν λευκαινόμενον. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὡς οὔκ εἰσιν αἱ ποιότητες σώματα ἀλλὰ ἀσώματοι. Εἰ γὰρ ἦσαν σώματα, ὑπὸ τὴν οὐσίαν ἦσαν· καὶ πάντα δὲ τὰ συμβεβηκότα ἀσώματά εἰσι καὶ καθ' ἑαυτὰ ἀνύπαρκτα, εἰ μὴ ἐν τῇ οὐσίᾳ θεωρηθῶσι. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὅτι αἱ οὐσιώδεις ποιότητες ὑπὸ τὴν οὐσίαν ἀνάγονται· μέρη γὰρ αὐτῆς εἰσιν ὡς διαιροῦντα αὐτὴν καὶ εἰς τὸν ὁρισμὸν τῶν εἰδῶν αὐτῆς λαμβανόμενα, ὑφ' ἣν δὲ κατηγορίαν τὸ ὅλον, ὑπὸ ταύτην καὶ τὰ μέρη αὐτοῦ ἀναχθήσονται. Τὸ βαρὺ καὶ κοῦφον ἢ ἐν ὄγκοις θεωρεῖται ὡς ἐπὶ τῶν σταθμιζομένων καὶ ἀνάγεται ὑπὸ τὸ ποσόν, ἢ ἐν οὐσίᾳ ὡς ἐν τοῖς στοιχείοις ἤγουν πυρὶ καὶ γῇ καὶ ἀνάγονται ὑπὸ τὴν οὐσίαν ὡς οὐσιώδεις διαφοραί, ὁμοίως καὶ τὸ πυκνὸν καὶ μανὸν ἤγουν ἀραιόν· ἢ γὰρ οὐσιωδῶς ἐν τοῖς στοιχείοις καὶ ἀνάγονται ὑπὸ τὴν οὐσίαν, ἢ ἐπεισάκτως ἐν ἱματίοις καὶ ἀνάγονται ὑπὸ τὴν κεῖσθαι κατηγορίαν, θέσει γάρ εἰσι. Τρία δέ εἰσιν ἴδια τῆς ποιότητος ἤγουν παρακολουθήματα· πρῶτον τὸ ἐναντιότητα ἐπιδέχεσθαι· τὸ γὰρ θερμὸν ἐναντίον τῷ ψυχρῷ καὶ τὸ λευκὸν τῷ μέλανι· δεύτερον τὸ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον· ἔνθα γὰρ ἐναντιότης ἐστί, καὶ τὸ μᾶλλον καὶ τὸ ἧττον εὑρίσκεται. Τὸ δὲ μᾶλλόν ἐστιν ἐπίτασις, καὶ τὸ ἧττον ὕφεσις. Ἐνδέχεται οὖν εἰπεῖν τόδε τὸ εἶδος μᾶλλον τοῦδε λευκὸν καὶ ἧττον ψυχρόν. Τρίτον παρακολούθημα, τὸ καὶ ἰδιώτατον τοῦ ποιοῦ, τὸ ὅμοιον καὶ ἀνόμοιον. ∆εῖ δὲ γινώσκειν, ὅτι τὸ σχῆμα οὐκ ἔχει ἐναντίον. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὅτι οὐ πᾶσαι αἱ στερήσεις ἀποφατικῶς λέγονται, ἀλλὰ καὶ στερήσεις εἰσὶ καταφατικῶς λεγόμεναι ὡς τυφλότης καὶ κωφότης. Καὶ πάλιν οὐ πᾶν εἶδος καταφατικῶς ὀνομάζεται ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀποφατικῶς, ὥσπερ ἡ ἀκολασία εἶδος οὖσα οὐ καταφατικῶς ἀλλ' ἀποφατικῶς ὠνομάσθη· ἡ γὰρ κατάθεσις κατάφασις λέγεται οἷον «καλός ἐστιν», ἡ δὲ ἄρνησις ἀπόφασις οἷον «οὐκ ἔστι καλός»· ὅτε δὲ λέγομεν «ἄνομος εἶ», τὸ ˉα ἄρνησιν σημαίνει ὡς τὸ οὔ. Εἰ δὲ λέγεται τόδε τὸ λευκὸν ἴσον εἶναι τῷδε τῷ λευκῷ, οὐ καθὸ ποιότης