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of it did not seem right for both the hardest bones and the softest flesh and fat to come into being Hippocrates was the first to be pleased that the bodies of animals are composed directly from the four humors; so that from the more earthy and thick-parted the more solid things might come to be, and from the softer things the soft. But the four humors are often found in the blood, as it is possible to see in blood-lettings, sometimes with the serous phlegm abounding in it, sometimes with the black or yellow bile; whence the men seem somehow to agree with one another. Of the parts in animals, some are homoeomerous, and others anhomoeomerous; for example, homoeomerous are brain, meninges, nerve, marrow, bone, tooth, cartilage, glands, ligament, membranes, fibers, hairs, nails, flesh, veins, arteries, passages, fat, skin, and what are, as it were, the immediate elements of these, blood as pure blood, phlegm, black and yellow bile. For the tendon is composite, from both ligament and nerve-like fibers; but anhomoeomerous are head, thorax, hands, feet, and the other members of a human being. For the head is not divided into head, as the nerve into nerve and the vein into vein and the flesh into flesh; but every anhomoeomerous part is composed of homoeomerous parts, as the head from nerves and flesh and bones and such things; and they also call these organic. And the definition of homoeomerous is this: those things whose parts are like both the whole and one another; but 'like' must now be taken to mean 'the same'. Not every animal possesses all the parts of the body; but some are mutilated. For some are without feet, like fish and snakes; others are without a head, like crabs and crayfish and some swimming creatures; for they have their sensory organs in the chest because of not having a head; others are deprived of a lung, all those that do not breathe the air; others do not have a bladder, like birds and all that do not urinate; and the ostracoderms are without most members; for their being animals exists in few things; but some things, although having, seem not to have; as stags seem not to have yellow bile, since they have it scattered and unseen in their intestines; but man has all things, and has them perfectly, and in such a way that it would not be possible for it to be otherwise well. Thus also regarding the position of the parts, there is much difference among animals. For some have their breasts on the chest; others on the belly; others under the thighs; and some have two, others four, others more. For nature has almost proportioned the number of breasts to the number of offspring. But if anyone should wish to select these things precisely, let him read Aristotle's history of animals. For it is not for the present writing to be precise about these things, but rather to set out certain outlines and types. Let us proceed then to the account of the elements, which is sought in what follows. 5 Concerning Elements The cosmic element is the smallest part of the composition of bodies. And there are four elements, earth, water, air, fire, arranged according to the said order from the things below to the things above, being themselves also bodies both first and simple with respect to the other bodies. For every element is of the same kind as those things of which it is an element. For a principle is not of the same kind as the things from it; but the element is always of the same kind. But that earth and water and air and fire are the elements, is clear. For in these the extreme qualities appear in potentiality and in actuality; however, none of these perceptible elements is unmixed and unblended with another element; for all these things are somehow gently adulterated and have partaken of one another more and less; but even in the mixture their nature is manifest. And each of the elements has according to a pairing two qualities that give it its form. For earth is dry and cold; water is cold and moist; air is moist and hot according to its own nature; and fire is hot and dry. However, the qualities are not able to be elements in themselves. For it is not possible for bodies to be composed from incorporeal qualities, nor is it possible for other bodies not having the quality in its extreme and in actuality to be elements. For there would be infinite

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αὐτοῦ οὐκ ἐδόκει καλῶς ἔχειν τά τε σκληρότατα ὀστέα καὶ τὴν ἁπαλωτάτην σάρκα τε καὶ πιμελὴν γίνεσθαι ἤρεσεν Ἱπποκράτει πρώτῳ τὰ σώματα τῶν ζῴων ἐκ τῶν τεσσάρων χυμῶν συμπήγνυσθαι προσεχῶς· ἵν' ἐκ μὲν τῶν γεωδεστέρων καὶ παχυμερεστέρων τὰ στερεώτερα γίνωνται, ἐκ δὲ τῶν μαλακωτέρων τὰ μαλακά. εὑρίσκονται δὲ πολλάκις οἱ τέσσαρες ἐν τῷ αἵματι χυμοί, ὡς ἔστιν ἰδεῖν ἐν ταῖς φλεβοτομίαις, ποτὲ μὲν τοῦ ὀρρώδους φλέγματος πλεονάζοντος ἐν αὐτῷ, ποτὲ δὲ τῆς μελαίνης ἢ ξανθῆς χολῆς· ὅθεν δοκοῦσί πως ἀλλήλοις συμφωνεῖν οἱ ἄνδρες. ἔστι δὲ τῶν ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις μερῶν τὰ μὲν ὁμοιομερῆ, τὰ δὲ ἀνομοιομερῆ· οἷον ὁμοιομερῆ μὲν ἐγκέφαλος, μήνιγγες, νεῦρον, μυελός, ὀστέον, ὀδούς, χόνδρος, ἀδένες, σύνδεσμος, ὑμένες, ἶνες, τρίχες, ὄνυχες, σάρκες, φλέβες, ἀρτηρίαι, πόροι, πιμελή, δέρμα, καὶ τὰ οἱονεὶ στοιχεῖα προσεχῆ τούτων, αἷμα καθὸ αἷμα καθαρόν, φλέγμα, χολὴ μέλαινα καὶ ξανθή. ὁ γὰρ τένων σύνθετός ἐστιν ἔκ τε συνδέσμου καὶ νευρωδῶν ἰνῶν· ἀνομοιομερῆ δὲ κεφαλή. θώραξ, χεῖρες, πόδες, καὶ τὰ ἄλλα μέλη τοῦ ἀνθρώπου. οὐ γὰρ εἰς κεφαλὴν διαιρεῖται ἡ κεφαλή, ὥσπερ τὸ νεῦρον εἰς νεῦρον καὶ ἡ φλὲψ εἰς φλέβα καὶ ἡ σὰρξ εἰς σάρκα· πᾶν δὲ ἀνομοιομερὲς ἐξ ὁμοιομερῶν σύνεστηκεν, ὡς ἡ κεφαλὴ ἐκ νεύρων καὶ σαρκῶν καὶ ὀστέων καὶ τῶν τοιούτων· καλοῦσι δὲ ταῦτα καὶ ὀργανικά. ὅρος δὲ ὁμοιομερῶν οὗτος· ὧν τὰ μόρια τῷ τε ὅλῳ καὶ ἀλλήλοις ἐστὶν ὅμοια· τὸ δὲ ὅμοιον νῦν ἀντὶ τοῦ ταὐτὸν δεῖ λαμβάνειν. οὐ πᾶν δὲ ζῷον πάντα τὰ μόρια τοῦ σώματος κέκτηται· ἀλλ' ἔστιν ἔνια κολοβά. τὰ μὲν γάρ ἐστιν ἄποδα, ὡς ἰχθύες καὶ ὄφεις· τὰ δὲ ἀκέφαλα, ὡς καρκίνοι καὶ κάραβοι καὶ τῶν νηκτῶν ἔνια· ἐν γὰρ τῷ στήθει τὰ αἰσθητήρια ἔχουσι διὰ τὸ μὴ ἔχειν κεφαλήν· τὰ δὲ πνεύμονος ἐστέρηται, ὅσα μὴ ἀναπνεῖ τὸν ἀέρα· τὰ δὲ κύστιν οὐκ ἔχει, ὡς ὄρνιθες καὶ πάντα τὰ μὴ οὐροῦντα· τὰ δὲ ὀστρακόδερμα τῶν πλείστων ἀμοιρεῖ μελῶν· ἐν ὀλίγοις γὰρ αὐτοῖς τὸ εἶναι ζῴοις ὑπάρχει· δοκεῖ δέ τινα καίτοι ἔχοντα μὴ ἔχειν· ὡς ἔλαφοι δοκοῦσι μὴ ἔχειν τὴν ξανθὴν χολήν, ἐπειδήπερ ἐν τοῖς ἐντέροις ἔχουσιν αὐτὴν διεσπαρμένην καὶ ἀφανῆ· ὁ δὲ ἄνθρωπος καὶ πάντα καὶ τέλεια καὶ ὡς οὐκ ἂν ἄλλως ἐνδέχοιτο καλῶς ἔχει πάντα. οὕτω δὲ καὶ κατὰ τὴν θέσιν τῶν μορίων πολλὴ διαφορὰ τοῖς ζῴοις. τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἔχει τοὺς μαστοὺς ἐν τῷ στήθει· τὰ δὲ ἐν τῇ κοιλίᾳ· τὰ δὲ ὑπὸ τοὺς μηρούς· καὶ τὰ μὲν δύο, τὰ δὲ τέσσαρας, τὰ δὲ πλείους. σχεδὸν γὰρ συνεμέτρησεν ἡ φύσις τῷ τῶν γεννωμένων ἀριθμῷ τὸ πλῆθος τῶν μαστῶν. εἰ δέ τις ἀκριβῶς ἐκλέγειν ταῦτα βούλοιτο, τὴν περὶ ζῴων ἱστορίαν Ἀριστοτέλους ἀναγινωσκέτω. οὐ γὰρ τῆς προκειμένης γραφῆς ἀκριβοῦν ἐστι ταῦτα, ἀλλ' οἷον ὑπογραφάς τινας καὶ τύπους ἐκτίθεσθαι. μετέλθωμεν οὖν ἐπὶ τὸν τῶν στοιχείων λόγον, ἐξ ἀκολουθίας ἐπιζητούμενον. 5 περὶ στοιχείων Τὸ στοιχεῖον τὸ κοσμικόν ἐστιν μέρος ἐλάχιστον τοῦ συγκρίματος τῶν σωμάτων. εἰσὶ δὲ στοιχεῖα τέσσαρα, γῆ, ὕδωρ, ἀήρ, πῦρ, συντεταγμένα κατὰ τὴν εἰρημένην τάξιν ἀπὸ τῶν κάτωθεν ἐπὶ τὰ ἄνω, σώματα καὶ αὐτὰ ὄντα πρῶτά τε καὶ ἁπλᾶ ὡς πρὸς τὰ ἄλλα σώματα. καὶ γὰρ πᾶν στοιχεῖον ὁμογενές ἐστι τοῖς ὧν ἐστι στοιχεῖον. ἡ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχὴ οὐχ ὁμογενὴς τοῖς ἐξ αὐτῆς· τὸ δὲ στοιχεῖον πάντως ὁμογενές. ἀλλ' ὅτι μὲν γῆ καὶ ὕδωρ ἀήρ τε καὶ πῦρ ἐστι τὰ στοιχεῖα, δῆλον. καὶ γὰρ ἐν τούτοις ἄκραι αἱ ποιότητες δυνάμει καὶ ἐνεργείᾳ φαίνονται· οὐ μὴν τῶν αἰσθητῶν τι τούτων στοιχείων ἄκρατον καὶ ἀνεπίμικτόν ἐστιν ἑτέρου στοιχείου· νενόθευται γὰρ ἠρέμα πως ἅπαντα ταῦτα καὶ μετείληφεν ἀλλήλων μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον· ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν τῇ μίξει κατάδηλός ἐστιν ἡ φύσις αὐτῶν. ἕκαστον δὲ τῶν στοιχείων κατὰ συζυγίαν δύο ποιότητας ἔχει τὰς εἰδοποιούσας αὐτό. ἔστι γὰρ ἡ μὲν γῆ ξηρὰ καὶ ψυχρά· τὸ δὲ ὕδωρ ψυχρὸν καὶ ὑγρόν· ὁ δὲ ἀὴρ ὑγρὸς καὶ θερμὸς κατὰ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ φύσιν· τὸ δὲ πῦρ θερμὸν καὶ ξηρόν. οὐ μὴν αἱ ποιότητες καθ' ἑαυτὰς εἶναι δύνανται στοιχεῖα. οὐ γὰρ ἐκ ποιοτήτων ἀσωμάτων οἷόν τε συστῆναι σώματα, ἀλλ' οὐδὲ τὰ ἄλλα σώματα μὴ ἄκραν ἔχοντα καὶ κατ' ἐνέργειαν τὴν ποιότητα δυνατὸν εἶναι στοιχεῖα. ἦν γὰρ ἂν ἄπειρα τὰ