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heat, and to honey its sweetness; for neither is heat acquired by fire, nor sweetness by honey, nor, not being such before, did they later take on heat and sweetness, yet they produce the same affection in our sensation; for fire, being hot, heats us, and honey, being sweet, sweetens us; -but some have come to be from a certain affection, that is, a mixture, and they sometimes produce an affection in our sensation, but not the same affection and the same quality which they possess, such as colors; for white, coming to be from a certain affection and mixture, produces an affection in sight, that is, distinction and diffusion and illumination, but it does not whiten us. The affective quality, therefore, which is not acquired, either inheres in the whole species, as heat in all fire, or not in the whole, as blackness in Ethiopians; for not all men are black. These things are observed not only concerning the body but also concerning the soul. A fourth kind of quality is shape and form. Shape, then, is applied to the animate and to the inanimate, but form only to the animate. If form or well-formed is said of inanimate things, it is not said in the proper sense but figuratively. Shape is therefore more universal; for form is also called shape. But the shape of inanimate things is not called form. Straightness, that is, rightness, and crookedness, that is, twistedness, belong to quality. One must know that things qualified are for the most part called paronymously from their qualities, as from heat, hot; but some also homonymously, as musical science and a musical woman who has musical science; and some, though rarely, heteronymously, as from virtue, excellent; for the virtuous man is called excellent. One must know that affection is twofold: for it is either said of that which has already been affected, and is referred to quality, as a garment already whitened is called white; or of that which is now being affected, and is referred to the category of being affected, as that which has not yet been whitened but is now being whitened. One must know that qualities are not bodies but incorporeal. For if they were bodies, they would be under substance; and all accidents are incorporeal and without existence in themselves, unless they are observed in substance. One must know that essential qualities are referred to substance; for they are parts of it, as dividing it and being taken in the definition of its species, and under whatever category the whole is, under this also its parts will be referred. Heavy and light are either observed in bulk, as in things being weighed, and are referred to quantity; or in substance, as in the elements, that is, fire and earth, and are referred to substance as essential differentiae; likewise also dense and thin, that is, rare; for either they are essentially in the elements and are referred to substance, or adventitiously in garments and are referred to the category of position, for they are by position. There are three properties of quality, that is, concomitants: first, that it admits of contrariety; for hot is contrary to cold, and white to black; second, more and less; for where there is contrariety, more and less are also found. More is an intensification, and less is a remission. It is possible, therefore, to say this species is more white than that, and less cold. A third concomitant, and the most proper to quality, is the similar and the dissimilar. But it must be known that shape does not have a contrary. One must know that not all privations are stated negatively, but there are also privations stated affirmatively, such as blindness and deafness. And again, not every species is named affirmatively but also negatively, just as intemperance, being a species, was not named affirmatively but negatively; for a positing is called an affirmation, for example, "he is good," while a denial is a negation, for example, "he is not good"; and when we say "you are lawless (anomos)," the alpha signifies a denial like "no." But if this white is said to be equal to that white, it is not said to be equal insofar as it is a quality but insofar as it is a quantity, and in that this surface is equal to that surface, just as in quantity the similar

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θερμότης καὶ τῷ μέλιτι ἡ γλυκύτης· οὔτε γὰρ τῷ πυρὶ ἐπίκτητος ἡ θερμότης οὐδὲ τῷ μέλιτι ἡ γλυκύτης, οὔτε πρότερον μὴ ὄντα τοιαῦτα ὕστερον προσε λάβοντο τὴν θερμότητα καὶ τὴν γλυκύτητα, ὅμως δὲ τὸ αὐτὸ πάθος ποιοῦσι κατὰ τὴν ἡμετέραν αἴσθησιν· τὸ μὲν γὰρ πῦρ θερμὸν ὂν θερμαίνει ἡμᾶς καὶ τὸ μέλι γλυκὺ ὂν γλυκαίνει ἡμᾶς· -τινὲς δὲ ἀπό τινος πάθους ἤγουν κράσεως γεγόνασι καὶ ποιοῦσιν ἐνίοτε πάθος κατὰ τὴν ἡμετέραν αἴσθησιν ἀλλ' οὐ τὸ αὐτὸ πάθος καὶ τὴν αὐτὴν ποιότητα, ἣν ἔχουσιν, οἷά εἰσι τὰ χρώματα· τὸ γὰρ λευκὸν ἔκ τινος πάθους καὶ κράσεως γινόμενον πάθος μὲν ποιεῖ περὶ τὴν ὅρασιν ἤγουν τὴν διάκρισιν καὶ ἐξάπλωσιν καὶ φωτισμόν, οὐ λευκαίνει δὲ ἡμᾶς. Ἡ οὖν παθητικὴ ἡ μὴ οὖσα ἐπίκτητος ἢ παντὶ τῷ εἴδει ἐνυπάρχει ὡς ἡ θερμότης ὅλῳ τῷ πυρί, ἢ οὐ παντὶ ὡς ἡ μελανία τοῖς Αἰθίοψιν· οὐ γὰρ πάντες οἱ ἄνθρωποι μέλανες. Ταῦτα δὲ οὐ μόνον περὶ σῶμα θεωρεῖται ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ ψυχήν. Τέταρτον εἶδος ποιότητος σχῆμα καὶ μορφή. Τὸ μὲν οὖν σχῆμα ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμψύχων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀψύχων φέρεται, ἡ δὲ μορφὴ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμψύχων μόνον. Εἰ δὲ ῥηθῇ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀψύχων μορφὴ ἢ εὔμορφον, οὐ κυρίως ἀλλὰ καταχρηστικῶς λέγεται. Καθολικώτερον οὖν ἐστι τὸ σχῆμα· καὶ ἡ μορφὴ γὰρ καλεῖται σχῆμα. Τὸ δὲ τῶν ἀψύχων σχῆμα οὐ καλεῖται μορφή. Ἡ δὲ εὐθύτης ἤγουν ὀρθότης καὶ ἡ καμπυλότης ἤγουν στρεβλότης τῆς ποιότητός εἰσιν. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὅτι τὰ ποιὰ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πλεῖστον παρωνύμως ἀπὸ τῶν ποιοτήτων λέγονται ὡς ἀπὸ τῆς θερμότητος θερμόν, τινὰ δὲ καὶ ὁμωνύμως ὡς μουσικὴ ἐπιστήμη καὶ μουσικὴ γυνὴ ἡ ἔχουσα τὴν μουσικὴν ἐπιστήμην, τινὰ δέ, εἰ καὶ σπανίως, ἑτερωνύμως ὡς ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρετῆς σπουδαῖος· ὁ γὰρ ἐνάρετος σπουδαῖος λέγεται. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὅτι τὸ πάθος διττόν· ἢ γὰρ ἐν τῷ ἤδη πεπονθέναι λέγεται, καὶ ἀνάγεται ὑπὸ τὴν ποιότητα, ὡς τὸ ἤδη λελευκασμένον ἱμάτιον λέγεται λευκόν, ἢ ἐν τῷ νῦν πάσχειν, καὶ ἀνάγεται ὑπὸ τὴν τοῦ πάσχειν κατηγορίαν, ὡς τὸ μήπω λευκανθὲν ἀλλὰ νῦν λευκαινόμενον. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὡς οὔκ εἰσιν αἱ ποιότητες σώματα ἀλλὰ ἀσώματοι. Εἰ γὰρ ἦσαν σώματα, ὑπὸ τὴν οὐσίαν ἦσαν· καὶ πάντα δὲ τὰ συμβεβηκότα ἀσώματά εἰσι καὶ καθ' ἑαυτὰ ἀνύπαρκτα, εἰ μὴ ἐν τῇ οὐσίᾳ θεωρηθῶσι. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὅτι αἱ οὐσιώδεις ποιότητες ὑπὸ τὴν οὐσίαν ἀνάγονται· μέρη γὰρ αὐτῆς εἰσιν ὡς διαιροῦντα αὐτὴν καὶ εἰς τὸν ὁρισμὸν τῶν εἰδῶν αὐτῆς λαμβανόμενα, ὑφ' ἣν δὲ κατηγορίαν τὸ ὅλον, ὑπὸ ταύτην καὶ τὰ μέρη αὐτοῦ ἀναχθήσονται. Τὸ βαρὺ καὶ κοῦφον ἢ ἐν ὄγκοις θεωρεῖται ὡς ἐπὶ τῶν σταθμιζομένων καὶ ἀνάγεται ὑπὸ τὸ ποσόν, ἢ ἐν οὐσίᾳ ὡς ἐν τοῖς στοιχείοις ἤγουν πυρὶ καὶ γῇ καὶ ἀνάγονται ὑπὸ τὴν οὐσίαν ὡς οὐσιώδεις διαφοραί, ὁμοίως καὶ τὸ πυκνὸν καὶ μανὸν ἤγουν ἀραιόν· ἢ γὰρ οὐσιωδῶς ἐν τοῖς στοιχείοις καὶ ἀνάγονται ὑπὸ τὴν οὐσίαν, ἢ ἐπεισάκτως ἐν ἱματίοις καὶ ἀνάγονται ὑπὸ τὴν κεῖσθαι κατηγορίαν, θέσει γάρ εἰσι. Τρία δέ εἰσιν ἴδια τῆς ποιότητος ἤγουν παρακολουθήματα· πρῶτον τὸ ἐναντιότητα ἐπιδέχεσθαι· τὸ γὰρ θερμὸν ἐναντίον τῷ ψυχρῷ καὶ τὸ λευκὸν τῷ μέλανι· δεύτερον τὸ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον· ἔνθα γὰρ ἐναντιότης ἐστί, καὶ τὸ μᾶλλον καὶ τὸ ἧττον εὑρίσκεται. Τὸ δὲ μᾶλλόν ἐστιν ἐπίτασις, καὶ τὸ ἧττον ὕφεσις. Ἐνδέχεται οὖν εἰπεῖν τόδε τὸ εἶδος μᾶλλον τοῦδε λευκὸν καὶ ἧττον ψυχρόν. Τρίτον παρακολούθημα, τὸ καὶ ἰδιώτατον τοῦ ποιοῦ, τὸ ὅμοιον καὶ ἀνόμοιον. ∆εῖ δὲ γινώσκειν, ὅτι τὸ σχῆμα οὐκ ἔχει ἐναντίον. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὅτι οὐ πᾶσαι αἱ στερήσεις ἀποφατικῶς λέγονται, ἀλλὰ καὶ στερήσεις εἰσὶ καταφατικῶς λεγόμεναι ὡς τυφλότης καὶ κωφότης. Καὶ πάλιν οὐ πᾶν εἶδος καταφατικῶς ὀνομάζεται ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀποφατικῶς, ὥσπερ ἡ ἀκολασία εἶδος οὖσα οὐ καταφατικῶς ἀλλ' ἀποφατικῶς ὠνομάσθη· ἡ γὰρ κατάθεσις κατάφασις λέγεται οἷον «καλός ἐστιν», ἡ δὲ ἄρνησις ἀπόφασις οἷον «οὐκ ἔστι καλός»· ὅτε δὲ λέγομεν «ἄνομος εἶ», τὸ ˉα ἄρνησιν σημαίνει ὡς τὸ οὔ. Εἰ δὲ λέγεται τόδε τὸ λευκὸν ἴσον εἶναι τῷδε τῷ λευκῷ, οὐ καθὸ ποιότης λέγεται ἴσον εἶναι ἀλλὰ καθὸ ποσότης καὶ τὸ εἶναι τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν ταύτην ἴσην ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἐπιφανείᾳ, ὡς καὶ ἐν τῷ ποσῷ τὸ ὅμοιον