John of Damascus, Dialectic Fuller Recension

and it is considered dissimilar not insofar as it is a quantity, but insofar as it partakes of a quality. 53 Concerning acting and being acted upon. One must know that making and passion, that is, the active power and the passive power, are under the category of quality, but to act and to be acted upon is some substance acting or being acted upon in such a way. Therefore, to act is to have in oneself the cause of the activity, and to be acted upon is to have the cause of being acted upon in oneself and in another, as the craftsman and the thing being crafted; for the craftsman has in himself the cause of the crafting, but the thing being crafted has the principle of its crafting in the craftsman, and in itself the suitability for being acted upon. And here by craftsman we mean the artisan, such as a carpenter, and by the thing being crafted, the matter which is subject to the artisan, such as wood; for this is subject to the carpenter. Of acting and being acted upon, some are simply called 'making', as in the case of the productive arts such as carpentry, smithing, and the like, in which, even after the maker has ceased, the product remains; for when the builder has ceased from building, what has been built remains; -but some is called 'doing', in which what is done does not remain when the doer has ceased; for when the flute-player has ceased, the flute-playing does not remain but perishes; -but some is called 'theorizing' such as studying astronomy, geometry, thinking, and the like, and further also the forms observed in inanimate things such as in fire, stone, wood, and the like. The first kinds, then, are in the case of rational beings, but the last is in the case of inanimate and irrational things; for it does not act insofar as it is animate but insofar as it is a body approaching a body. And it has two properties: first, to admit of contrariety, for heating is contrary to cooling; second, the more and the less; for it is possible to heat more and to cool less, and likewise to be heated and to be cooled. Therefore, in all the categories acting and being acted upon are observed: in substance, begetting and being begotten, in quantity, counting and being counted, in relation, doubling and being doubled, in quality, whitening and being whitened, in position, sitting and being seated, in having, wearing and being worn, in where, containing and being contained, and in when, being contained and containing in the present and past and future time. 54 Concerning position. To be in a position is to have a position somehow in relation to another, such as a body positioned somehow in relation to such a position, or to reclining, or sitting, or standing. And there are three kinds of position: standing, sitting, reclining; for being upright makes for standing, but being partly positioned and partly upright makes for sitting, and being completely positioned makes for reclining. But 'position' signifies neither the thing positioned nor the place, but the very posture of the thing positioned in relation to the place. And of things positioned, some are positioned according to nature, as the elements in their proper places, such as earth, water, air, fire, and the like, but others are according to arrangement and art, as a statue, a pillar, and the like. There remains a subdivision which says that of things positioned, some are stationary, as the earth, but others are moving, as the celestial bodies. Further, of things positioned, some are positioned in potentiality, that is, those that are able to move, but others in actuality, as where they are positioned. 55 Concerning 'where'. 'Where' signifies place; for when asked "where is so-and-so?" we say "in the house, in the city"; and these signify place. And the kinds of the category 'where' according to the differentiations of places are up, down, right, left, in front, behind. 56 Concerning 'when'. 'When' signifies time; for when asked "when did this happen?" we say "last year, the year before last," which signify time. And the kinds of the category 'when' are as many as the differentiations of time. And these are three: present, past, future. 57 Concerning 'having'. 'Having' is a substance around a substance. And it signifies to encompass or to be encompassed and not to be some part of the thing. And a tunic, armor, and such things encompass, but a ring is encompassed, and if there is any other such small thing. And it is necessary that both that which encompasses and that which is encompassed be substances; for if one were a substance, and the other an accident, as

καὶ ἀνόμοιον θεωρεῖται οὐ καθὸ ποσόν, ἀλλὰ καθὸ μετέχει ποιότητος. 53 Περὶ τοῦ ποιεῖν καὶ πάσχειν. Χρὴ γινώσκειν, ὅτι ἡ ποίησις καὶ ἡ πάθησις ἤγουν ἡ ποιητικὴ δύναμις καὶ ἡ παθητικὴ ὑπὸ τὴν ποιότητά εἰσι, τὸ δὲ ποιεῖν καὶ τὸ πάσχειν οὐσία τίς ἐστι τοιῶσδε ἐνεργοῦσα ἢ πάσχουσα. Ποιεῖν οὖν ἐστι τὸ ἐν ἑαυτῷ ἔχειν τὴν αἰτίαν τῆς ἐνεργείας, πάσχειν δὲ τὸ ἐν ἑαυτῷ καὶ ἐν ἄλλῳ ἔχειν τὴν αἰτίαν τοῦ πάσχειν ὡς ὁ δημιουργὸς καὶ τὸ δημιουργούμενον· ὁ μὲν γὰρ δημιουργὸς ἐν ἑαυτῷ ἔχει τὴν αἰτίαν τῆς δημιουργίας, τὸ δὲ δημιουργούμενον ἐν μὲν τῷ δημιουργῷ τὴν ἀρχὴν τῆς δημιουργίας, ἐν ἑαυτῷ δὲ τὴν ἐπιτηδειότητα τῆς παθήσεως. ∆ημιουργὸν δὲ ἐνταῦθα τὸν τεχνίτην λέγομεν οἷον τέκτονα, δημιουργούμενον δὲ τὴν ὕλην τὴν ὑποκειμένην τῷ τεχνίτῃ οἷον τὴν ξυλήν· αὕτη γὰρ ὑπόκειται τῷ τέκτονι. Τοῦ δὲ ποιεῖν καὶ τοῦ πάσχειν τὰ μὲν ἁπλῶς λέγονται ποιεῖν ὡς ἐπὶ τῶν ποιητικῶν τεχνῶν οἷον τεκτονικῆς, χαλκευτικῆς καὶ τῶν τοιούτων, ἐφ' ὧν καὶ μετὰ τὸ παύσασθαι τὸν ποιοῦντα διαμένει τὸ ποίημα· τοῦ γὰρ οἰκοδόμου παυσαμένου τοῦ οἰκοδομεῖν διαμένει τὸ οἰκοδομηθέν· -τὸ δὲ λέγεται πράττειν, ἐφ' ὧν οὐ διαμένει τὸ πραττόμενον παυσαμένου τοῦ πράττοντος· παυσαμένου γὰρ τοῦ αὐλητοῦ οὐ διαμένει ἀλλ' ἀπόλλυται ἡ αὔλησις· -τὸ δὲ λέγεται θεωρεῖν ὡς τὸ ἀστρονομεῖν, γεωμετρεῖν, νοεῖν καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα, ἔτι καὶ τὰ θεωρούμενα εἴδη ἐν τοῖς ἀψύχοις οἷον πυρί, λίθῳ, ξύλῳ καὶ τοῖς τοιούτοις. Τὰ μὲν οὖν πρῶτα ἐπὶ τῶν λογικῶν εἰσι, τὸ δὲ ἔσχατον ἐπὶ τῶν ἀψύχων καὶ ἀλόγων· οὐ καθὸ γὰρ ἔμψυχον ποιεῖ ἀλλὰ καθὸ σῶμα πλησιάζον σώματι. ∆ύο δὲ ἔχει ἴδια· πρῶτον τὸ ἐπιδέχεσθαι ἐναντιότητα, τὸ γὰρ θερμαίνειν ἐναντίον ἐστὶ τοῦ ψύχειν· δεύτερον τὸ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον· ἐνδέχεται γὰρ μᾶλλον θερμαίνειν καὶ ἧττον ψύχειν, ὁμοίως καὶ θερμαίνεσθαι καὶ ψύχεσθαι. Ἐν πάσαις οὖν ταῖς κατηγορίαις θεωρεῖται τὸ ποιεῖν καὶ πάσχειν· ἐν μὲν τῇ οὐσίᾳ τὸ γεννᾶν καὶ γεννᾶσθαι, ἐν δὲ τῷ ποσῷ ἀριθμεῖν καὶ ἀριθμεῖσθαι, ἐν δὲ τοῖς πρός τι διπλασιάζειν καὶ διπλασιάζεσθαι, ἐν τῇ ποιότητι λευκαίνειν καὶ λευκαίνεσθαι, ἐν τῷ κεῖσθαι καθίζειν καὶ καθέ ζεσθαι, ἐν τῷ ἔχειν φορεῖν καὶ φορεῖσθαι, ἐν τῇ ποῦ περιέχειν καὶ περιέχεσθαι, καὶ ἐν τῇ ποτὲ περιέχεσθαι καὶ περιέχειν ἐν τῷ ἐνεστῶτι καὶ παρεληλυθότι καὶ μέλλοντι χρόνῳ. 54 Περὶ τοῦ κεῖσθαι. Κεῖσθαί ἐστι τὸ ἔχον θέσιν πως πρὸς ἕτερον οἷον τὸ σῶμα τὸ κείμενόν πως πρὸς τὴν τοιαύτην θέσιν ἢ πρὸς ἀνάκλισιν ἢ καθέδραν ἢ στάσιν. Εἴδη δὲ τοῦ κεῖσθαι τρία· τὸ ἵστασθαι, τὸ καθῆσθαι, τὸ ἀνακλίνεσθαι· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ὀρθὸν εἶναι τὸ ἵστασθαι ποιεῖ, τὸ δὲ κατὰ μέρος μὲν κεῖσθαι, κατὰ μέρος δὲ ἵστασθαι ποιεῖ τὸ καθῆσθαι, τὸ δὲ παντελῶς κεῖσθαι ποιεῖ τὸ ἀνακλίνεσθαι. Οὐ δηλοῖ δὲ τὸ κεῖσθαι οὐδὲ τὸ κείμενον οὐδὲ τὸν τόπον ἀλλὰ αὐτὴν τὴν θέσιν τοῦ κειμένου πρὸς τὸν τόπον. Τῶν δὲ κειμένων τὰ μὲν κατὰ φύσιν κεῖνται ὡς τὰ στοιχεῖα ἐν τοῖς οἰκείοις τόποις οἷον γῆ, ὕδωρ, ἀήρ, πῦρ καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα, τὰ δὲ κατὰ θέσιν καὶ τέχνην ὡς ἀνδριάς, κίων καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. Λοιπὸν ἐπιδιαίρεσις ἡ λέγουσα, ὅτι τῶν κειμένων τὰ μὲν στάσιμα ὡς γῆ, τὰ δὲ κινούμενα ὡς τὰ οὐράνια σώματα. Ἔτι τῶν κειμένων τὰ μὲν δυνάμει κεῖνται ἤγουν τὰ δυνάμενα μετέρχεσθαι, τὰ δὲ ἐνεργείᾳ, ὡς ὅπου κεῖνται. 55 Περὶ τῆς ποῦ. Τὸ ποῦ τόπον σημαίνει· ἐρωτώμενοι γὰρ «ποῦ ἐστιν ὁ δεῖνα» φαμὲν «ἐν τῷ οἴκῳ, ἐν τῇ πόλει»· ταῦτα δὲ τόπον σημαίνουσιν. Εἴδη δὲ τῆς ποῦ κατηγορίας κατὰ τὰς διαφορὰς τῶν τόπων ἄνω, κάτω, δεξιά, ἀριστερά, ἔμπροσθεν, ὄπισθεν. 56 Περὶ τῆς ποτέ. Τὸ ποτὲ χρόνον δηλοῖ· ἐρωτώμενοι γὰρ «πότε ἐγένετο τόδε;» λέγομεν «πέρυσι, προπέρυσι», ἅτινα χρόνον σημαίνουσιν. Εἴδη δὲ τῆς ποτὲ κατηγορίας εἰσὶ τοσαῦτα, ὅσαι αἱ τοῦ χρόνου διαφοραί. Τρεῖς δέ εἰσιν αὗται· ἐνεστώς, παρῳχημένος, μέλλων. 57 Περὶ τοῦ ἔχειν. Τὸ ἔχειν ἐστὶν οὐσία περὶ οὐσίαν. ∆ηλοῖ δὲ τὸ περιέχειν ἢ περιέχεσθαι καὶ μὴ εἶναί τι μέρος τοῦ πράγματος. Καὶ περιέχει μὲν χιτών, ὅπλα καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα, περιέχεται δὲ δακτύλιος καὶ εἴ τι ἕτερον τοιοῦτον σμικρόν. ∆εῖ δὲ καὶ τὸ περιέχον καὶ τὸ περιεχόμενον οὐσίας εἶναι· εἰ γὰρ τὸ μὲν οὐσία εἴη, τὸ δὲ συμβεβηκός, ὡς