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conclusion, for example: The soul is ever-moving, the ever-moving is immortal, from these premises is deduced: Therefore the soul is immortal; this is a conclusion. A premise is a declarative statement of something from something, which is a negation, for example "Socrates does not laugh", or of something about something, which is an affirmation, as "Socrates laughs". A term is that into which the premise is resolved. A syllogism is an argument in which, certain things having been posited or rather agreed upon, something different from what has been laid down necessarily follows on account of what has been laid down; for the conclusion comes about through the laid-down premises, not requiring any other external proof. A problem is a proposition conducing to choice and avoidance, or rather to denial and assent, for the sake of knowledge and theory. An inquiry is a question requiring a detailed or rather a broad answer; for a simple question differs from an inquiry, in that the answer to the simple question follows quickly, or rather in few words, but to the inquiry, [the answer is] delayed and in many words. A dialogical character is said to be that which is by question and answer. An objection is that which overthrows the argument from the beginning. A counter-argument is that which accepts the argument as true, but shows that it does no harm to the matter at hand. A lemma is that which is taken as agreed upon for the establishment of something. A school is the opinion of several people who agree with each other, but disagree with others. A common notion is that which is agreed upon by all, for example that the sun exists. A thesis is a paradoxical opinion of one of those renowned in philosophy, or rather a strange notion, like the argument of Parmenides, that he said being is one, and like that of Heraclitus, that all things are in motion. Common is that which is observed in many things or predicated of many things. "Common" is said in four ways: either that which is divisible into parts, like inherited land; or that which is indivisibly taken in common use, but not simultaneously, as one slave or one horse of two masters, fulfilling the command sometimes of this one, sometimes of that one; or that which is appropriated by pre-occupation, but referred to the common, like a place in a theater or in a bath; or that which is indivisibly presented for a common and the same notion, like the voice of the herald. In this manner must be taken, in the case of homonyms and synonyms, the phrase "whose name is common". "In itself" is that which belongs to something primarily and essentially and not accidentally, as rationality to man. "Universal" is that which signifies many things, as man, animal, substance. "Accidental" is that which can belong to something and not belong, as being sick and being healthy to man. "To make" is said of the productive arts, in which what is produced remains, as in carpentry and such arts; for the couch remains after the making. "To do" is said of those [arts] in which the end, or rather the result, does not remain, as in flute-playing and dancing. "To contemplate" is said of understanding, studying astronomy, studying geometry, and such things. True reason shows the concept to be twofold. For the one is a kind of afterthought and subsequent reflection, unfolding and clarifying the general and unarticulated theory and knowledge of things, so that what seemed by sense to be simple appears, through the busy activity of the mind, to be multipartite and varied, for example man, appearing simple, is understood by conception to be double, being composed of both soul and body, while the other happens to be a fiction of the mind according to a combination of both sensation and imagination, composing and opining from existing things things that in no way exist. Such is the mythological fabrication of hippocentaurs and sirens and goat-stags. For taking the parts of wholes and composing something else from the parts with much license and ease, it has fashioned in the mind and in words things in no way seen in hypostasis and substance, then, being shaped also in materials, it has made into idols; and this is called

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συμπέρασμα, οἷον· Ἡ ψυχὴ ἀεικίνητός ἐστι, τὸ ἀεικίνητον ἀθάνατον, ἐκ τῶν προτάσεων τούτων συνάγεται· Ἄρα ἡ ψυχὴ ἀθάνατός ἐστι· τοῦτό ἐστι συμπέρασμα. Πρότασίς ἐστι λόγος ἀποφαντικός τινος ἀπό τινος, ὅπερ ἐστὶν ἀπόφασις, οἷον «Σωκράτης οὐ γελᾷ», ἤ τινος κατά τινος, ὅπερ ἐστὶ κατάφασις, ὡς «Σωκράτης γελᾷ». Ὅρος ἐστίν, εἰς ὃν ἀναλύεται ἡ πρότασις. Συλλογισμός ἐστι λόγος, ἐν ᾧ τεθέντων τινῶν ἤγουν ὁμολογηθέντων ἕτερον ἐξ ἀνάγκης τῶν κειμένων συμβαίνει διὰ τὰ κείμενα· διὰ γὰρ τὰς κειμένας προτάσεις γίνεται τὸ συμπέρασμα μὴ δεόμενον ἔξωθεν ἑτέρας τινὸς συστάσεως. Πρόβλημά ἐστι θεώρημα συντεῖνον εἰς αἵρεσιν καὶ φυγὴν ἤγουν εἰς ἄρνησιν καὶ συγκατάθεσιν πρὸς γνῶσιν καὶ θεωρίαν. Πύσμα ἐστὶν ἐρώτημα διεξοδικὴν ἤγουν πλατεῖαν ἀπαιτοῦν ἀπόκρισιν· διαφέρει γὰρ ὁ ἐρωτηματικὸς λόγος τοῦ πυσματικοῦ, ὅτι τῷ μὲν ἐρωτηματικῷ ταχεῖα ἕπεται ἡ ἀπόκρισις ἤγουν δι' ὀλίγων, τῷ δὲ πυσματικῷ χρονία καὶ διὰ πολλῶν. ∆ιαλογικὸς χαρακτὴρ λέγεται ὁ κατὰ πεῦσιν καὶ ἀπόκρισιν. Ἔνστασίς ἐστιν ἡ ἐκ προοιμίων ἀνατρέπουσα τὸν λόγον. Ἀντιπαράστασις δὲ ἡ δεχομένη μὲν τὸν λόγον ὡς ἀληθῆ, δεικνύουσα δέ, ὡς οὐδὲν βλάπτει πρὸς τὸ προκείμενον. Λημμάτιόν ἐστιν, ὅπερ εἴληπται ὡς ὁμολογούμενον πρὸς κατασκευήν τινος. Αἵρεσίς ἐστι δόξα πλειόνων ἀνθρώπων πρὸς ἀλλήλους μὲν συμφωνούντων, πρὸς ἄλλους δὲ διαφωνούντων. Κοινὴ δὲ ἔννοιά ἐστιν ἡ παρὰ πᾶσιν ὁμολογουμένη, οἷον ὅτι ἔστιν ἥλιος. Θέσις δέ ἐστι παράδοξος ὑπόληψίς τινος τῶν ἐν φιλοσοφίᾳ γνωρίμων ἤγουν ξένη ἔννοια ὡς ὁ Παρμενίδου λόγος, ὅτι ἓν ἔλεγε τὸ ὄν, καὶ ὡς ὁ Ἡρακλείτου, ὅτι πάντα κινεῖται. Κοινόν ἐστι τὸ ἐν πολλοῖς θεωρούμενον ἢ πολλῶν κατηγορούμενον. Κοινὸν δὲ τετραχῶς λέγεται· ἢ τὸ εἰς τὰ μέρη διαιρετὸν ὡς ἡ κληρουχουμένη γῆ· ἢ τὸ ἀδιαιρέτως ἐν χρήσει κοινῇ λαμβανόμενον, οὐχ ἅμα δὲ ὡς εἷς δοῦλος ἢ εἷς ἵππος δύο δεσποτῶν ποτὲ μὲν τοῦδε, ποτὲ δὲ τοῦδε τὴν κέλευσιν πληρῶν· ἢ τὸ ἐν προκαταλήψει ἰδιοποιούμενον, εἰς δὲ τὸ κοινὸν ἀναπεμπόμενον ὡς ὁ ἐν θεάτρῳ τόπος ἢ ἐν βαλανείῳ· ἢ τὸ ἀδιαιρέτως εἰς κοινὴν καὶ τὴν αὐτὴν ἔννοιαν προβαλλόμενον ὡς ἡ φωνὴ τοῦ κήρυκος. Κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον χρὴ ληφθῆναι ἐπὶ τῶν ὁμωνύμων καὶ συνωνύμων τὸ «ὧν ὄνομα κοινόν». Καθ' αὑτό ἐστι τὸ πρώτως καὶ κατ' οὐσίαν προσόν τινι καὶ οὐ κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς ὡς τὸ λογικὸν τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ. Καθόλου ἐστὶ τὸ πολλὰ σημαῖνον ὡς ἄνθρωπος, ζῷον, οὐσία. Κατὰ συμβεβηκός ἐστιν, ὃ δύναται ὑπάρχειν τινὶ καὶ μὴ ὑπάρχειν ὡς τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ τὸ νοσεῖν καὶ ὑγιαίνειν. Ποιεῖν λέγεται ἐπὶ τῶν ποιητικῶν τεχνῶν, ἐφ' ὧν διαμένει τὸ γινόμενον ὡς ἐπὶ τεκτονικῆς καὶ τῶν τοιούτων· διαμένει γὰρ μετὰ τὴν ποίησιν ἡ κλίνη. Πράττειν λέγεται, ἐφ' ὧν οὐ διαμένει τὸ τέλος ἤγουν τὸ ἀποτέλεσμα ὡς ἐπὶ τῆς αὐλητικῆς καὶ ὀρχηστικῆς. Θεωρεῖν δὲ λέγεται τὸ νοεῖν, τὸ ἀστρονομεῖν, τὸ γεωμετρεῖν καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. Τὴν ἐπίνοιαν ὁ ἀληθὴς λόγος διττὴν ἀποφαίνεται. Ἡ μὲν γὰρ ἐπέννοιά τις καὶ ἐπενθύμησίς ἐστι τὴν ὁλοσχερῆ τῶν πραγμάτων καὶ ἀδιάρθρωτον ἐξαπλοῦσα καὶ διασαφοῦσα θεωρίαν καὶ γνῶσιν, ὡς τὸ αἰσθήσει δόξαν εἶναι ἁπλοῦν τῇ πολυπραγμοσύνῃ τοῦ νοῦ πολυμερές τε καὶ ποικίλον ἀναφαίνεσθαι, οἷον ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἁπλοῦς φαινόμενος τῇ ἐπινοίᾳ διπλοῦς κατανοεῖται, ἐκ ψυχῆς τε καὶ σώματος συγκείμενος, ἡ δὲ ἀνάπλασμα διανοίας τυγχάνει κατὰ συμπλοκὴν αἰσθήσεώς τε καὶ φαντασίας ἐκ τῶν ὄντων τὰ μηδαμῶς ὄντα συντιθεῖσα καὶ δοξάζουσα. Τοιαύτη δέ ἐστιν ἡ τῶν ἱπποκενταύρων καὶ σειρήνων καὶ τραγελάφων μυθοπλαστία. Τῶν γὰρ ὅλων τὰ μέρη λαμβάνουσα καὶ ἐκ τῶν μερῶν ἄλλο τι συντιθεῖσα κατὰ πολλὴν ἐξουσίαν τε καὶ εὐκολίαν τὰ μηδαμῶς ἐν ὑποστάσει τε καὶ οὐσίᾳ θεωρούμενα ἐν τῇ διανοίᾳ καὶ τοῖς λόγοις ἀνέπλασεν, εἶτα καὶ ταῖς ὕλαις διατυπουμένη ἀνειδωλοποίησεν· αὕτη δὲ λέγεται