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This is the definition of the passions of the soul: a passion is a perceptible movement of the appetitive power based on an image of good or evil. And in another way: a passion is an irrational movement of the soul through a supposition of good or evil. The general passion is defined thus: a passion is a movement in one thing from another. An activity, however, is an active movement; and active is said to be that which moves from itself. Thus, then, anger is an activity of the spirited part, but a passion of the two parts of the soul and furthermore of our whole body when it is violently led to actions by anger. For the movement has come to be in one thing from another, which we said is a passion. And in another way, activity is called passion when it is contrary to nature. For activity is a movement according to nature; passion is contrary to nature. And according to this account, therefore, activity, when it is not moved according to nature, is called passion, whether it is moved from itself or from another. For indeed, the movement of the heart according to its pulse is an activity; but that according to its palpitations is a passion. For the movement according to its palpitations is also from itself, but not according to nature; and that of the pulse is also from itself, but according to nature. Therefore it is not at all surprising that one and the same thing is called both passion and activity. For insofar as they are movements from the passible part of the soul itself, they are certain activities; but insofar as they are immoderate and not according to nature, they are not activities but passions. Thus, therefore, the movement of the irrational part is a passion according to both significations. But not every movement of the passible part is called a passion; but the more vehement ones and those which proceed to perception. For the small and imperceptible ones are not yet passions. For a passion must have a considerable magnitude. For this reason, "perceptible movement" is added to the definition of passion. For small movements, escaping perception, do not make a passion, as has been said. 16 Concerning the appetitive part. Therefore, as we said, the irrational part of the soul which is obedient to reason is divided into two, both the appetitive and the spirited; again, the appetitive is divided into two, into pleasures and pains; for desire, when it attains, produces pleasure; but when it fails, pain. Again, in another way, desire being divided makes four kinds in all, including itself. For since of existing things some are good, and some base; and some are already present, and some are expected; according to these modes, the two being multiplied into two, the things of desire are divided into four. For there is good and evil; and again present and expected. An expected good is desire; but when already present, pleasure. Again, an expected evil is fear; but when present, pain. For pleasure and desire are concerned with good things; but fear and pain with base things. Therefore some divide passion into four: desire, pleasure, fear, pain. And we call things good and base either those that are truly so or those that are thought to be so. And base passions arise in the soul through these three things: through a bad upbringing, from ignorance, and by a bad physical state. For not being well brought up from childhood so as to be able to control the passions, we fall into their immoderation; and from ignorance, base judgments are implanted in the rational part of the soul, so that it thinks base things to be good and good things to be base; and some things also arise from the body's bad state. For those who are bilious are irascible, and those who are hot and moist in temperament are impulsive; but a bad habit must be cured by a good habit, and ignorance by learning and knowledge, and a bad physical state must be treated physically, changing it as far as possible to a moderate temperament with a suitable diet and exercises and medicines, if we should also need these. 17 Concerning pleasures. Of pleasures, some are of the soul, and some of the body. Those of the soul are of the soul itself by itself, as those concerning learning and contemplation, for these and such as these are of the soul alone; but bodily pleasures are those that come about with the participation of the body and the soul, and for this reason are called bodily, as those concerning food and intercourse. But one would not find proper pleasures of the body alone but affections, such as cuts and fluxes and the qualities according to temperament. For every pleasure is with perception; and we have shown that perception is of the soul. and

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ψυχικῶν παθῶν ὅρος οὗτος· πάθος ἐστὶ κίνησις τῆς ὀρεκτικῆς δυνάμεως αἰσθητὴ ἐπὶ φαντασίᾳ ἀγαθοῦ ἢ κακοῦ. καὶ ἄλλως· πάθος ἐστὶ κίνησις ἄλογος τῆς ψυχῆς δι' ὑπόληψιν καλοῦ ἢ κακοῦ. τὸ δὲ γενικὸν πάθος οὕτως ὁρίζονται· πάθος ἐστὶ κίνησις ἐν ἑτέρῳ ἐξ ἑτέρου. ἐνέργεια δέ ἐστι κίνησις δραστική· δραστικὸν δὲ λέγεται τὸ ἐξ ἑαυτοῦ κινούμενον. οὕτως οὖν καὶ ὁ θυμὸς ἐνέργεια μέν ἐστι τοῦ θυμοειδοῦς, πάθος δὲ τῶν δύο μερῶν τῆς ψυχῆς καὶ προσέτι τοῦ σώματος ἡμῶν παντὸς ὅταν ὑπὸ τοῦ θυμοῦ βιαίως ἄγηται πρὸς τὰς πράξεις. ἐξ ἑτέρου γὰρ ἐν ἑτέρῳ γέγονεν ἡ κίνησις, ὅπερ ἐλέγομεν εἶναι πάθος. καὶ καθ' ἕτερον δὲ τρόπον ἡ ἐνέργεια πάθος λέγεται ὅταν ᾖ παρὰ φύσιν. ἐνέργεια μὲν γάρ ἐστι κατὰ φύσιν κίνησις· πάθος δὲ παρὰ φύσιν. καὶ κατὰ τοῦτον οὖν τὸν λόγον ἡ ἐνέργεια, ὅταν μὴ κατὰ φύσιν κινῆται, λέγεται πάθος, εἴτε ἐξ ἑαυτοῦ κινοῖτο εἴτε ἐξ ἑτέρου. τῆς γοῦν καρδίας ἡ μὲν κατὰ τοὺς σφυγμοὺς κίνησις ἐνέργειά ἐστιν· ἡ δὲ κατὰ τοὺς παλμοὺς πάθος. ἐξ αὐτῆς μὲν γάρ ἐστιν καὶ ἡ κατὰ τοὺς παλμοὺς κίνησις, ἀλλ' οὐ κατὰ φύσιν· ἐξ αὐτῆς δὲ καὶ ἡ τῶν σφυγμῶν, ἀλλὰ κατὰ φύσιν. οὐδὲν οὖν θαυμαστὸν ἓν καὶ ταὐτὸν πρᾶγμα καὶ πάθος καὶ ἐνέργειαν ὀνομάζεσθαι. καθ' ὃ μὲν γὰρ κινήσεις εἰσὶν ἐξ αὐτοῦ τοῦ παθητικοῦ τῆς ψυχῆς, ἐνέργειαί τινές εἰσι· καθ' ὅσον δὲ ἄμετροι καὶ οὐ κατὰ φύσιν, οὐκ ἐνέργειαι ἀλλὰ πάθη. οὕτως οὖν ἡ κίνησις τοῦ ἀλόγου πάθος ἐστὶ κατ' ἄμφω τὰ σημαινόμενα. οὐ πᾶσα δὲ κίνησις τοῦ παθητικοῦ πάθος καλεῖται· ἀλλ' αἱ σφοδρότεραι καὶ εἰς αἴσθησιν προβαίνουσαι. αἱ γὰρ μικραὶ καὶ ἀνεπαίσθητοι οὐδέπω πάθη. δεῖ γὰρ ἔχειν τὸ πάθος καὶ μέγεθος ἀξιόλογον. διὸ πρόσκειται τῷ ὅρῳ τοῦ πάθους τὸ κίνησις αἰσθητή. αἱ γὰρ μικραὶ κινήσεις λανθάνουσαι τὴν αἴσθησιν οὐ ποιοῦσι πάθος, ὡς εἴρηται. 16 περὶ τοῦ ἐπιθυμητικοῦ ∆ιαιρεῖται μὲν οὖν ὡς ἔφαμεν τὸ ἄλογον τῆς ψυχῆς τὸ ἐπιπειθὲς λόγῳ εἰς δύο, τό τε ἐπιθυμητικὸν καὶ τὸ θυμικόν· πάλιν δὲ τὸ ἐπιθυμητικὸν διαιρεῖται εἰς δύο, εἰς ἡδονὰς καὶ λύπας· ἐπιτυγχάνουσα μὲν γὰρ ἡ ἐπιθυμία ἡδονὴν ἐμποιεῖ· ἀποτυγχάνουσα δὲ λύπην. πάλιν δὲ καθ' ἕτερον τρόπον ἡ ἐπιθυμία διαιρουμένη τέσσαρα σὺν ἑαυτῇ τὰ πάντα εἴδη ποιεῖ. ἐπεὶ γὰρ τῶν ὄντων τὰ μέν ἐστιν ἀγαθά, τὰ δὲ φαῦλα· καὶ τὰ μὲν ἤδη πάρεστι, τὰ δὲ προσδοκᾶται· κατὰ τούτους τοὺς τρόπους τῶν δύο εἰς δύο πολυπλασιαζομένων τὰ τῆς ἐπιθυμίας εἰς τέσσαρα διαιρεῖται. ἔστι γὰρ ἀγαθὸν καὶ κακόν· καὶ πάλιν παρὸν καὶ προσδοκώμενον. προσδοκώμενον μὲν ἀγαθὸν ἐπιθυμία ἐστίν· ἤδη δὲ παρόν, ἡδονή. πάλιν προσδοκώμενον μὲν κακόν, φόβος· παρὸν δέ, λύπη. περὶ τὰ ἀγαθὰ μὲν γὰρ στρέφεται ἡδονὴ καὶ ἐπιθυμία· περὶ τὰ φαῦλα δὲ φόβος καὶ λύπη. διό τινες τὸ πάθος εἰς τέσσαρα διαιροῦσιν, ἐπιθυμίαν, ἡδονήν, φόβον, λύπην. ἀγαθὰ δὲ καὶ φαῦλα λέγομεν ἢ τὰ ὄντως ὄντα ἢ τὰ νομιζόμενα. ἐγγίνεται δὲ τὰ φαῦλα πάθη τῇ ψυχῇ διὰ τριῶν τούτων· διὰ κακῆς ἀγωγῆς, ἐξ ἀμαθίας, ὑπὸ καχεξίας. μὴ ἀχθέντες γὰρ καλῶς ἐκ παίδων ὡς δύνασθαι κρατεῖν τῶν παθῶν εἰς τὴν ἀμετρίαν αὐτῶν ἐκπίπτομεν· ἐκ δὲ τῆς ἀμαθίας φαῦλαι κρίσεις τῷ λογιστικῷ τῆς ψυχῆς ἐμφύονται ὡς οἴεσθαι τὰ φαῦλα χρηστὰ εἶναι καὶ τὰ χρηστὰ φαῦλα· γίνεται δέ τινα καὶ ἐκ τῆς τοῦ σώματος καχεξίας. ὀργίλοι γάρ εἰσιν οἱ πικρόχολοι καὶ καταφερεῖς οἱ θερμοὶ καὶ ὑγροὶ τὴν κρᾶσιν· θεραπευτέον δὲ τὸ μὲν κακὸν ἔθος ἔθει καλῷ, τὴν δὲ ἀμαθίαν μαθήσει καὶ ἐπιστήμῃ, τὴν δὲ καχεξίαν ἰατέον σωματικῶς μεθιστάντας αὐτὴν ὡς οἷόν τε εἰς τὴν μέσην κρᾶσιν ἁρμοζούσῃ διαίτῃ καὶ γυμνασίοις καὶ φαρμάκοις, ἐὰν καὶ τούτων δεηθῶμεν. 17 περὶ ἡδονῶν Τῶν ἡδονῶν αἱ μέν εἰσιν ψυχικαί, αἱ δὲ σωματικαί. ψυχικαὶ μὲν αἱ τῆς ψυχῆς αὐτῆς καθ' ἑαυτὴν ὡς αἱ περὶ τὰ μαθήματα καὶ τὴν θεωρίαν, αὗται γὰρ καὶ αἱ τοιαῦται μόνης εἰσὶ τῆς ψυχῆς· σωματικαὶ δέ εἰσιν αἱ μετὰ κοινωνίας τοῦ σώματος καὶ τῆς ψυχῆς γινόμεναι, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο σωματικαὶ καλούμεναι, ὡς αἱ περὶ τὰς τροφὰς καὶ τὰς συνουσίας. μόνου δὲ τοῦ σώματος οὐκ ἂν εὕροι τις ἰδίας ἡδονὰς ἀλλὰ πάθη, οἷον τομὰς καὶ ῥεύσεις καὶ τὰς κατὰ κρᾶσιν ποιότητας. πᾶσα γὰρ ἡδονὴ μετ' αἰσθήσεως· ψυχικὴν δὲ τὴν αἴσθησιν ἐδείξαμεν. καὶ