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causing repentance, nor productive of other harm, neither going beyond measure nor drawing us away from serious works for a long time or enslaving us. 28 Concerning Grief Of grief there are four kinds: distress, anguish, envy, pity. Distress, then, is grief that produces speechlessness, anguish is grief that weighs one down, envy is grief over another's goods, and pity is grief over another's evils.

29 Concerning Fear Fear is also divided into six kinds: hesitation, shame,

disgrace, consternation, astonishment, agony. Hesitation, then, is fear of future action. Shame is fear in expectation of blame; and this is the most beautiful passion. Disgrace is fear over a shameful deed done; and this is not hopeless for salvation. Consternation is fear from a great imagining. Astonishment is fear from an unaccustomed imagining. Agony is fear of a fall, that is, of failure; for fearing to fail in the act, we feel agony.

30 Concerning Anger Anger is a boiling of the blood around the heart from the exhalation

of the bile or its being stirred up. Wherefore it is also called bile and wrath. But sometimes anger is also a desire for retaliation; for when we are wronged or think we are wronged we get angry, and then the passion becomes a mixture of desire and anger. There are three kinds of anger: rage, which is called bile and wrath, and rancor, and resentment. For anger that has a beginning and a movement is called rage and bile and wrath. Rancor is lasting bile, that is, a remembrance of wrongs; and it is so called from its 'remaining' and being handed over to memory. Resentment is rage that watches for an opportunity for revenge; and this is also named from its 'lying in wait.' Anger is the bodyguard of reason, the avenger of desire; for whenever we desire something and are hindered by someone, we become angry with him as though we were wronged, reason obviously having judged the event worthy of indignation in the case of those who keep their proper order according to nature. Of that which does not obey reason are the nutritive, the generative, and the pulsative; the nutritive and generative are called augmentative, and the pulsative is called vital. Of the nutritive, then, there are four faculties: the attractive, which draws in the nourishment, the retentive, which holds the nourishment and does not allow it to be immediately discharged, the alterative, which changes the nourishment into the humors, the secretive, which separates the waste and expels it through the bowel. One must know that of the faculties in an animal, some are psychical, some are physical, and some are vital. And the psychical are those subject to choice, that is, movement according to impulse and sensation. And of movement according to impulse are locomotion, and movement of the whole body, and phonation, and respiration; for it is in our power to do these things or not to do them. The physical and vital are not subject to choice. And the physical are the nutritive, the augmentative, and the spermatic; and the vital is the pulsative; for these operate whether we will it or not.

31 Concerning the imaginative faculty The imaginative is a faculty of the irrational soul through

the sense organs acting, which is called sensation. And that which is perceived by imagination and sensation is an object of imagination and sensation; just as sight is the optic faculty itself, and the visible is that which is perceived by sight, a stone for instance, or some such thing. Imagination is a passion of the irrational soul caused by some object of imagination, but a phantasm is an empty passion in the irrational parts of the soul arising from no object of imagination. And the organ of the imaginative faculty is the front ventricle of the brain.

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μεταμέλειαν ἐμποιούσας μηδὲ ἑτέρας βλάβης γεννητικάς, μήτε τοῦ μέτρου πέρα χωρούσας μήτε τῶν σπουδαίων ἔργων ἡμᾶς ἀφελκούσας ἐπὶ πολὺ ἢ καταδουλούσας. 28 Περὶ λύπησ Τῆς δὲ λύπης εἴδη τέσσαρα· ἄχος, ἄχθος, φθόνος, ἔλεος. Ἄχος μὲν οὖν ἐστι λύπη ἀφωνίαν ἐμποιοῦσα, ἄχθος δὲ λύπη βαρύνουσα, φθόνος δὲ λύπη ἐπὶ ἀλλοτρίοις ἀγαθοῖς, ἔλεος δὲ λύπη ἐπὶ ἀλλοτρίοις κακοῖς.

29 Περὶ φόβου ∆ιαιρεῖται δὲ καὶ ὁ φόβος εἰς ἕξ· εἰς ὄκνον, εἰς αἰδῶ, εἰς

αἰσχύνην, εἰς κατάπληξιν, εἰς ἔκπληξιν, εἰς ἀγωνίαν. Ὄκνος μὲν οὖν ἐστι φόβος μελλούσης ἐνεργείας. Αἰδὼς δὲ φόβος ἐπὶ προσδοκίᾳ ψόγου· κάλλιστον δὲ τοῦτο τὸ πάθος. Αἰσχύνη δὲ φόβος ἐπὶ αἰσχρῷ πεπραγμένῳ· οὐδὲ τοῦτο δὲ ἀνέλπιστον εἰς σωτηρίαν. Κατάπληξις δὲ φόβος ἐκ μεγάλης φαντασίας. Ἔκπληξις δὲ φόβος ἐξ ἀσυνήθους φαντασίας. Ἀγωνία δὲ φόβος διαπτώσεως ἤγουν ἀποτυχίας· φοβούμενοι γὰρ ἀποτυχεῖν τῆς πράξεως ἀγωνιῶμεν.

30 Περὶ θυμοῦ Θυμὸς δέ ἐστι ζέσις τοῦ περὶ καρδίαν αἵματος ἐξ ἀναθυμιάσεως

τῆς χολῆς ἢ ἀναθολώσεως γινομένη. ∆ιὸ καὶ χολὴ λέγεται καὶ χόλος. Ἔστι δέ, ὅτε ὁ θυμὸς καὶ ὄρεξίς ἐστιν ἀντιτιμωρήσεως· ἀδικούμενοι γὰρ ἢ νομίζοντες ἀδικεῖσθαι θυμούμεθα, καὶ γίνεται τότε μικτὸν τὸ πάθος ἐξ ἐπιθυμίας καὶ θυμοῦ. Εἴδη δὲ τοῦ θυμοῦ τρία· ὀργή, ἥτις καλεῖται χολὴ καὶ χόλος, καὶ μῆνις καὶ κότος. Θυμὸς μὲν γὰρ ἀρχὴν καὶ κίνησιν ἔχων ὀργὴ καὶ χολὴ καὶ χόλος λέγεται. Μῆνις δὲ χολὴ ἐπιμένουσα ἤγουν μνησικακία· εἴρηται δὲ παρὰ τὸ μένειν καὶ τῇ μνήμῃ παραδίδοσθαι. Κότος δὲ ὀργὴ ἐπιτηροῦσα καιρὸν εἰς τιμωρίαν· εἴρηται δὲ καὶ οὗτος παρὰ τὸ κεῖσθαι. Ἔστι δὲ ὁ θυμὸς τὸ δορυφορικὸν τοῦ λογισμοῦ, ἔκδικος τῆς ἐπιθυμίας· ὅταν γὰρ ἐπιθυμήσωμεν πράγματος καὶ κωλυθῶμεν ὑπό τινος, θυμούμεθα κατ' αὐτοῦ ὡς ἀδικηθέντες, τοῦ λογισμοῦ δηλονότι κρίναντος ἄξιον ἀγανακτήσεως τὸ γινόμενον ἐπὶ τῶν φυλαττόντων κατὰ φύσιν τὴν οἰκείαν τάξιν. Τοῦ δὲ μὴ πειθομένου λόγῳ ἐστὶ τὸ θρεπτικὸν καὶ γεννητικὸν καὶ σφυγμικόν· καλεῖται δὲ αὐξητικὸν μὲν τὸ θρεπτικὸν καὶ γεννητικόν, ζωτικὸν δὲ τὸ σφυγμικόν. Τοῦ μὲν οὖν θρεπτικοῦ δυνάμεις εἰσὶ τέσσαρες· ἑλκτικὴ ἡ ἕλκουσα τὴν τροφήν, καθεκτικὴ ἡ κατέχουσα τὴν τροφὴν καὶ μὴ ἐῶσα αὐτὴν εὐθέως ἐκκριθῆναι, ἀλλοιωτικὴ ἡ ἀλλοιοῦσα τὴν τροφὴν εἰς τοὺς χυμούς, ἀποκριτικὴ ἡ τὸ περίττωμα διὰ τοῦ ἀφεδρῶνος ἐκκρίνουσα καὶ ἐκβάλλουσα. Χρὴ δὲ εἰδέναι, ὅτι τῶν κατὰ τὸ ζῷον δυνάμεων αἱ μέν εἰσιν ψυχικαί, αἱ δὲ φυσικαί, αἱ δὲ ζωτικαί. Καὶ ψυχικαὶ μὲν αἱ κατὰ προαίρεσιν ἤγουν ἡ καθ' ὁρμὴν κίνησις καὶ ἡ αἴσθησις. Τῆς δὲ καθ' ὁρμὴν κινήσεώς ἐστι τό τε κατὰ τόπον μεταβατικὸν καὶ κινητικὸν ὅλου τοῦ σώματος καὶ φωνητικὸν καὶ ἀναπνευστικόν· ἐν ἡμῖν γάρ ἐστι ποιῆσαι ταῦτα καὶ μὴ ποιῆσαι. Φυσικαὶ δὲ καὶ ζωτικαὶ αἱ ἀπροαίρετοι. Καὶ φυσικαὶ μὲν ἡ θρεπτικὴ καὶ αὐξητικὴ καὶ σπερματική, ζωτικὴ δὲ ἡ σφυγμική· αὗται γὰρ καὶ θελόντων καὶ μὴ θελόντων ἐνεργοῦσι.

31 Περὶ τοῦ φανταστικοῦ Φανταστικόν ἐστι δύναμις τῆς ἀλόγου ψυχῆς διὰ

τῶν αἰσθητηρίων ἐνεργοῦσα, ἥτις λέγεται αἴσθησις. Φανταστὸν δὲ καὶ αἰσθητὸν τὸ τῇ φαντασίᾳ καὶ τῇ αἰσθήσει ὑποπῖπτον· ὡς ὅρασις μὲν αὐτὴ ἡ ὀπτικὴ δύναμις, ὁρατὸν δὲ τὸ ὑποπῖπτον τῇ ὁράσει, λίθος τυχὸν ἤ τι τῶν τοιούτων. Φαντασία δέ ἐστι πάθος τῆς ἀλόγου ψυχῆς ὑπὸ φανταστοῦ τινος γινόμενον, φάντασμα δὲ πάθος διάκενον ἐν τοῖς ἀλόγοις τῆς ψυχῆς ἀπ' οὐδενὸς φανταστοῦ γινόμενον. Ὄργανον δὲ τοῦ φανταστικοῦ ἡ ἐμπρόσθιος κοιλία τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου.