Nemesius Emesenus, On Human Nature

pouring forth the excretion of the excess black humor into the stomach, it both constricts and tones it and stimulates it for digestion. And in addition to these things, it also cleanses the liver. For which reason it also seems somehow to have come into being on account of the blood. And the kidneys are a means of cleansing for the blood and the cause of the desire related to sexual intercourse. For the vessels which we say fall into the testicles pass through the kidneys; and from there they draw a certain acridity which stimulates the desire, just as the acridity produces itching when it comes to be under the skin. And by how much the flesh of the testicles is softer than the skin, by that much more, being bitten by the acridity, they make the desire for the excretion of the seed frantic. These things, then, and such as these have in a certain way come into being both for their own sake and for the sake of other things. But the glands and the flesh, only for the sake of other things. For the glands are a vehicle and support for the vessels, so that they might not be torn apart while being carried aloft in violent movements. But the flesh has become a covering for the other members so that it may cool the living being in summer by sending out moisture from within and in winter may provide them the use of felted wools. And the skin has become a covering both for the soft flesh and for all the other things within; and it is by nature flesh that has been hardened both by the surrounding air and by the bodies that come in contact with it. But the bones are the support of the whole body, and especially the spine, which they also say is the keel of the living being. And the nails provide a use in common for all who have them, that of scratching, and besides this, a particular one, different for different creatures. For to many of the living beings they were given as a means of defense, as to those with crooked claws; and they are like an organ of the spirited part, but to many they are both a means of defense and at the same time a support for their footing, as to horses and every single-hoofed animal; and to humans not only for scratching and dispersing the acridity of the skin but also for grasping fine things; for we lift up very fine things by means of them; and by pressing against the tips of the fingers from behind, they support their grip. But the hairs came to be incidentally. For they are formed incidentally from the smokiest vapors that are sent up from the body taking on a certain condensation. But not even these did the Creator make completely useless; but although they came to be incidentally, he prepared them to contribute both to covering and beauty for living beings; covering for goats and sheep, and adornment for humans; and for some living beings both adornment and covering at the same time, as for the lion. 28 Concerning the voluntary and involuntary Since we have often mentioned the voluntary and involuntary, it is necessary to discuss these things as well so that we may not be mistaken in our precise knowledge of them. But it is necessary for one who is about to speak about the involuntary and voluntary to first set out certain rules and criteria by which it will be known whether what happens is voluntary or involuntary. Since, therefore, every voluntary thing is in some action, and what is considered involuntary is itself also in an action (this will be shown shortly; but some place what is truly involuntary not only in suffering but also in acting), one must define before other things what action is. Action is a rational activity. And praise or blame follows actions, and some of them are done with pleasure while others are done with pain, and some are chosen by the one acting while others are to be avoided, and of those chosen some are always chosen while others are chosen at a certain time; and likewise also for those to be avoided. And again, some actions are pitied and are deemed worthy of pardon, while others are hated and punished. Let there be, therefore, criteria for the voluntary: that praise or blame always follows, and that it is done with pleasure, and that the actions are chosen by those who act, either always or at the time when they are done. And for the involuntary, criteria: that it is deemed worthy of pardon or pity, and that it is done with pain, and that it is not chosen. With these things thus defined, let us first speak about the involuntary. 29 Concerning the involuntary Of the involuntary, one part is by force and the other through ignorance. Therefore, of things involuntary by force, the efficient principle is external, for something else is the cause of the force and not we ourselves. A definition, therefore, of that which is by force

ἔκκρισιν τοῦ περιττεύοντος χυμοῦ τοῦ μέλανος εἰς τὴν γαστέρα προχέων, στύφει τε αὐτὴν καὶ τονοῖ καὶ πρὸς τὰς πέψεις διεγείρει. πρὸς τούτοις δὲ καὶ καθαίρει τὸ ἧπαρ. διὸ καὶ αὐτὸς δοκεῖ πως διὰ τὸ αἷμα γεγονέναι. καὶ οἱ νεφροὶ δὲ τοῦ τε αἵματος καθάρσιόν εἰσι καὶ τῆς ὀρέξεως τῆς κατὰ τὴν συνουσίαν αἴτιοι. αἱ γὰρ φλέβες ἃς λέγομεν ἐμπίπτειν εἰς τοὺς διδύμους, διὰ τῶν νεφρῶν διεξέρχονται· κἀκεῖθεν ἀρύονται δριμύτητά τινα τὴν ἐρεθίζουσαν τὴν ὄρεξιν, ὥσπερ καὶ τὸν κνησμὸν ἡ δριμύτης ὑπὸ τὸ δέρμα γινομένη ποιεῖ. ὅσῳ δὲ τῶν διδύμων ἡ σὰρξ ἁπαλωτέρα τοῦ δέρματός ἐστι, τοσούτῳ πλέον ὑπὸ τῆς δριμύτητος δακνόμενοι ἐμμανῆ ποιοῦσι τῆς ἐκκρίσεως τῆς γονῆς τὴν ἐπιθυμίαν. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα τρόπον τινὰ καὶ δι' ἑαυτὰ καὶ δι' ἄλλα γέγονεν. οἱ δὲ ἀδένες καὶ ἡ σὰρξ δι' ἄλλα μόνον. οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀδένες ὄχημα καὶ στήριγμα τῶν ἀγγείων εἰσίν, ἵνα μὴ διαρραγῇ μετέωρα φερόμενα ἐν ταῖς βιαίοις κινήσεσιν. ἡ δὲ σὰρξ σκέπασμα γέγονε τῶν ἄλλων μορίων ἵνα καὶ θέρους ἀναψύχῃ τὸ ζῷον νοτίαν ἔσωθεν ἐκπέμπουσα καὶ χειμῶνος τὴν τῶν πιλητῶν ἐρίων αὐτοῖς παρέχῃ χρείαν. καὶ τὸ δέρμα δὲ σκέπασμα γέγονε καὶ τῆς ἁπαλῆς σαρκὸς καὶ τῶν ἄλλων πάντων τῶν ἔντοσθεν· ἔστιν δὲ τὴν φύσιν σὰρξ ὑπό τε τοῦ περιέχοντος καὶ τῶν προσομιλούντων σωμάτων τυλωθεῖσα. τὰ δὲ ὀστᾶ στήριγμα τοῦ παντὸς σώματός ἐστι, καὶ μάλιστα ἡ ῥάχις, ἣν καὶ τρόπιν τοῦ ζῴου φασὶν εἶναι. οἱ ὄνυχες δὲ καὶ κοινῇ μὲν πᾶσι τοῖς ἔχουσι παρέχονται χρείαν τὴν τοῦ κνήθεσθαι καὶ ἰδίαν δὲ παρὰ ταύτην ἄλλην ἄλλῳ. πολλοῖς μὲν γὰρ τῶν ζῴων ἀμυντήριον ἐδόθησαν, ὡς τοῖς γαμψώνυξιν· καὶ εἰσὶν ὥσπερ ὄργανον τοῦ θυμικοῦ, πολλοῖς δὲ ἀμυντήριόν τε ἅμα καὶ στήριγμα τῆς βάσεως, ὡς τοῖς ἵπποις καὶ παντὶ μονώνυχι· καὶ ἀνθρώποις δὲ οὐ μόνον πρὸς τὸ κνήθεσθαι καὶ διαφορεῖν τὴν δριμύτητα τοῦ δέρματος ἀλλὰ καὶ πρὸς τὴν τῶν λεπτῶν ἀντίληψιν· τὰ γὰρ πάνυ λεπτὰ δι' αὐτῶν ἐπαίρομεν· καὶ τοῖς ἄκροις δὲ τῶν δακτύλων ὄπισθεν ἀντιβαίνοντες στηρίζουσι τὴν λαβὴν αὐτῶν. αἱ δὲ τρίχες κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς παρ υπέστησαν. τῶν γὰρ ἀτμῶν τῶν καπνωδεστάτων τῶν ἀναπεμπομένων ἐκ τοῦ σώματος πῆξίν τινα λαμβανόντων κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς συνίστανται. οὐδὲ ταύτας δὲ παντάπασιν ἀχρήστους ἐποίησεν ὁ δημιουργός· ἀλλὰ καίτοι κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς γενομένας εἰς σκέπην τε καὶ κάλλος συντελεῖν τοῖς ζῴοις παρεσκεύασεν· σκέπην μὲν αἰξὶν καὶ προβάτοις, κόσμον δὲ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις· τισὶ δὲ ζῴοις κόσμον τε ἅμα καὶ σκέπην ὡς τῷ λέοντι. 28 περὶ ἑκουσίου καὶ ἀκουσίου Ἐπειδὴ πολλάκις ἐμνημονεύσαμεν ἑκουσίου καὶ ἀκουσίου ἀνάγκη καὶ περὶ τούτων διαλαβεῖν ἵνα τῆς ἀκριβοῦς αὐτῶν γνώσεως μὴ διασφαλλώμεθα. δεῖ δὲ τὸν μέλλοντα περὶ ἀκουσίου καὶ ἑκουσίου λέγειν πρότερον ἐκθέσθαι κανόνας τινὰς καὶ γνώμονας δι' ὧν γνώριμον ἔσται εἴτε ἑκούσιον εἴτε ἀκούσιόν ἐστι τὸ γινόμενον. ἐπεὶ τοίνυν πᾶν ἑκούσιον ἐν πράξει τινί ἐστι, καὶ τὸ νομιζόμενον δὲ ἀκούσιον καὶ αὐτὸ ἐν πράξει ἐστί (δειχθήσεται τοῦτο μετ' οὐ πολύ· τινὲς δὲ καὶ τὸ ὄντως ἀκούσιον οὐ μόνον ἐν τῷ πάσχειν ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν τῷ πράττειν τίθενται), ὁριστέον πρὸ τῶν ἄλλων τί ἐστι πρᾶξις. πρᾶξίς ἐστιν ἐνέργεια λογική. ταῖς δὲ πράξεσιν ἔπαινος ἢ ψόγος ἕπεται, καὶ αἱ μὲν αὐτῶν μεθ' ἡδονῆς αἱ δὲ μετὰ λύπης πράττονται, καὶ αἱ μέν εἰσιν αἱρεταὶ τῷ πράττοντι αἱ δὲ φευκταί, καὶ τῶν αἱρετῶν αἱ μὲν ἀεὶ αἱρεταὶ αἱ δὲ κατά τινα χρόνον· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τῶν φευκτῶν. καὶ πάλιν αἱ μὲν τῶν πράξεων ἐλεοῦνται καὶ συγγνώμης ἀξιοῦνται αἱ δὲ μισοῦνται καὶ κολάζονται. ἔστωσαν οὖν γνώμονες τοῦ μὲν ἑκουσίου τὸ πάντως ἐπα κολουθεῖν ἔπαινον ἢ ψόγον, καὶ τὸ μεθ' ἡδονῆς πράττεσθαι, καὶ τὸ αἱρετὰς εἶναι τὰς πράξεις τοῖς πράττουσιν ἢ ἀεὶ ἢ τότε ὅτε πράττονται. τοῦ δὲ ἀκουσίου γνώμονες τὸ συγγνώμης ἢ ἐλέους ἀξιοῦσθαι, καὶ τὸ μετὰ λύπης πράττεσθαι, καὶ τὸ μὴ εἶναι αἱρετάς. τούτων οὕτω διορισθέντων λέγωμεν πρότερον περὶ τοῦ ἀκουσίου. 29 περὶ ἀκουσίου Τοῦ ἀκουσίου τὸ μὲν κατὰ βίαν τὸ δὲ δι' ἄγνοιάν ἐστι, τῶν τοίνυν κατὰ βίαν ἀκουσίων ἡ ποιητικὴ ἀρχὴ ἔξωθέν ἐστιν, ἄλλο γάρ τι τῆς βίας αἴτιόν ἐστι καὶ οὐχ ἡμεῖς. ὅρος τοίνυν τοῦ κατὰ βίαν