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and crabs, and things similar to these. Besides these, there is another genus, the mollusks, so named because their flesh is soft and spongy: octopuses, and cuttlefish, and things like these. And among these again are countless differences. For weevers and morays and eels, which are found in muddy rivers and lakes, approach more the venomous reptiles than fish in the similarity of their nature. One genus is of the egg-laying, and another of the live-bearing. The galeoids and dogfish bear live young, and generally what are called cartilaginous fish. And most of the great sea creatures are live-bearing: dolphins, and seals, which, when their young pups are frightened by some cause, are said to take them back into their womb and protect them. Let the waters bring forth according to their kind. The genus of sea monsters is one, and that of small fish is another. Again among fish there are countless differences divided by genus; which have their own names, and varied food, and shape and size and qualities of flesh, all separated from one another by the greatest differences, and established in different and various forms. What tuna-watchers, then, can enumerate for us the differences of the genera? And yet they say that these men report even the number in great schools of fish. But who of those who have grown old by the shores and coasts can make known to us the history of all of them with accuracy? Those who fish the Indian sea know some things; others, those who hunt in the Egyptian gulf; others, islanders; and others, Mauritanians. But that first command and that ineffable power brought forth all things alike, both small and great. Many are the variations in their lives; many also are the differences concerning the successions of each genus. Most fish do not incubate their eggs like birds, nor do they build nests, nor do they raise their offspring with toils; but the water, receiving the fallen egg, has made it a living creature. And for each genus the succession is unvaried and unmixed with another nature. Not like the interbreedings of mules on land, or of certain birds corrupting their genera. Nothing among fish is armed with teeth on one side only, like the ox and sheep among us; for none of them chews the cud, unless some relate this of the scarus-fish alone. But all are densely fitted with the sharpest points of teeth, so that the food may not flow away through long chewing; for it would, if not quickly cut up and sent to the stomach, be dissolved by the water in the process of breaking it down. 7.3 But for fish, different food is appointed for different ones according to their genus. For some are fed on mud; others on seaweed; others are content with the plants that grow in the water. But most fish eat one another, and among them the smaller is food for the larger. And should it ever happen that the one that has overpowered the lesser becomes the prey of another, they are brought into the one stomach of the last one. What then do we men do differently in our oppression of the weaker? how does the one who in his ravenous love of wealth hides the weak in the insatiable folds of his greed differ from the last fish? That man had the poor man's things; you, having taken this man, made him a part of your own abundance. You have shown yourself more unjust than the unjust, and more greedy than the greedy. See that the same end as the fishes does not await you, somewhere a hook, or a basket, or a net. For we too, having committed many injustices, shall certainly not escape the final punishment. And now having learned of much craftiness and treachery even in a weak animal, I want you to flee the imitation of evildoers. The crab desires the flesh of the oyster; but the prey is hard for it to catch because of the covering of the shell. For nature has secured the soft flesh with an unbreakable enclosure. For this reason it is also called a shellfish. And since two hollows, exactly fitted to each other, enclose the oyster, the claws of the crab are necessarily useless. What then

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καὶ καρκῖνοι, καὶ τὰ παραπλήσια τούτοις. Ἕτερον παρὰ ταῦτα γένος ἐστὶ τὰ μαλάκια οὕτω προσαγορευθέντα, ὅσων ἡ σὰρξ ἁπαλὴ καὶ χαύνη· πολύποδες, καὶ σηπίαι, καὶ τὰ ὅμοια τούτοις. Καὶ ἐν τούτοις πάλιν διαφοραὶ μυρίαι. ∆ράκοντες γὰρ καὶ μύραιναι καὶ ἐγχέλυες, αἱ κατὰ τοὺς ἰλυώδεις ποταμοὺς καὶ λίμνας γινόμεναι, τοῖς ἰοβόλοις μᾶλλον τῶν ἑρπετῶν, ἢ τοῖς ἰχθύσι κατὰ τὴν ὁμοιότητα τῆς φύσεως προσεγγίζουσιν. Ἄλλο γένος τὸ τῶν ὠοτοκούντων, καὶ ἄλλο τὸ τῶν ζωοτοκούντων. Ζωοτοκεῖ δὲ τὰ γαλεώδη καὶ οἱ κυνίσκοι, καὶ ἁπαξαπλῶς τὰ σελάχη λεγόμενα. Καὶ τῶν κητῶν τὰ πλεῖστα ζωο τόκα· δελφῖνες, καὶ φῶκαι, ἃ καὶ νεαροὺς ἔτι τοὺς σκύμνους, διαπτοηθέντας ὑπὸ αἰτίας τινὸς, λέγεται πάλιν τῇ γαστρὶ ὑποδεχόμενα περιστέλλειν. Ἐξαγαγέτω τὰ ὕδατα κατὰ γένος. Ἕτερον γένος τὸ κητῶδες, καὶ τὸ τῶν λεπτῶν ἰχθύων ἕτερον. Πάλιν ἐν τοῖς ἰχθύσι μυρίαι διαφοραὶ κατὰ γένη διῃρημέναι· ὧν καὶ ὀνόματα ἴδια, καὶ τροφὴ παρηλ λαγμένη, καὶ σχῆμα καὶ μέγεθος καὶ σαρκῶν ποιότητες, πάντα μεγίσταις διαφοραῖς ἀλλήλων κεχωρισμένα, καὶ ἐν ἑτέροις καὶ ἑτέροις εἴδεσι καθεστῶτα. Ποῖοι μὲν οὖν θυννο σκόποι τῶν γενῶν τὰς διαφορὰς ἡμῖν ἀπαριθμήσασθαι δύνανται; Καίτοι φασὶν αὐτοὺς ἐν μεγάλαις ἀγέλαις ἰχθύων καὶ τὸν ἀριθμὸν ἀπαγγέλλειν. Τίς δὲ τῶν περὶ αἰγιαλοὺς καὶ ἀκτὰς καταγηρασάντων δύναται ἡμῖν τὴν ἱστορίαν πάντων δι' ἀκριβείας γνωρίσαι; Ἄλλα γνωρίζουσιν οἱ τὴν Ἰνδικὴν ἁλιεύοντες θάλασσαν· ἄλλα, οἱ τὸν Αἰγύπτιον ἀγρεύοντες κόλπον· ἄλλα, νησιῶται· καὶ ἄλλα, Μαυρούσιοι. Πάντα δὲ ὁμοίως μικρά τε καὶ μεγάλα τὸ πρῶτον ἐκεῖνο πρόσταγμα καὶ ἡ ἄφατος ἐκείνη παρήγαγε δύναμις. Πολλαὶ τῶν βίων αἱ παραλλαγαί· πολλαὶ καὶ αἱ περὶ τὰς διαδοχὰς ἑκάστου γένους διαφοραί. Οὐκ ἐπωάζουσιν οἱ πλεῖστοι τῶν ἰχθύων ὥσπερ αἱ ὄρνιθες, οὔτε καλιὰς πήγνυνται, οὔτε μετὰ πόνων ἐκτρέφουσιν ἑαυτῶν τὰ ἔκγονα· ἀλλὰ τὸ ὕδωρ ὑποδεξάμενον ἐκπεσὸν τὸ ὠὸν, ζῷον ἐποίησεν. Καὶ ἑκάστῳ γένει ἡ διαδοχὴ ἀπαράλλακτος καὶ ἀνεπίμικτος πρὸς ἑτέραν φύσιν. Οὐχ οἷαι τῶν ἡμιόνων ἐπὶ τῆς χέρσου, ἢ καί τινων ὀρνίθων ἐπιπλοκαὶ παραχαρασσόντων τὰ γένη. Οὐδὲν παρὰ τοῖς ἰχθύσιν ἐξ ἡμισείας ὥπλισται τοῖς ὀδοῦσιν, ὡς βοῦς παρ' ἡμῖν καὶ πρόβατον· οὐδὲ γὰρ μηρυκίζει τι παρ' αὐτοῖς, εἰ μὴ τὸν σκάρον μόνον ἱστοροῦσί τινες. Πάντα δὲ ὀξυτάταις ἀκμαῖς ὀδόντων καταπεπύκνωται, ἵνα μὴ τῇ χρονίᾳ μα σήσει ἡ τροφὴ διαρρέῃ· ἔμελλε γὰρ, εἰ μὴ ὀξέως κατατεμ νομένη τῇ γαστρὶ παρεπέμπετο, ἐν τῇ λεπτοποιήσει διαφο ρεῖσθαι παρὰ τοῦ ὕδατος. 7.3 Τροφὴ δὲ ἰχθύσιν ἄλλοις ἄλλη κατὰ γένος διωρισμένη. Οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἰλύϊ τρέφονται· οἱ δὲ τοῖς φυκίοις· ἄλλοι ταῖς βοτάναις ταῖς ἐντρεφομέναις τῷ ὕδατι ἀρκοῦνται. Ἀλλη λοφάγοι δὲ τῶν ἰχθύων οἱ πλεῖστοι, καὶ ὁ μικρότερος παρ' ἐκείνοις βρῶμά ἐστι τοῦ μείζονος. Κἄν ποτε συμβῇ τὸν τοῦ ἐλάττονος κρατήσαντα ἑτέρου γενέσθαι θήραμα, ὑπὸ τὴν μίαν ἄγονται γαστέρα τοῦ τελευταίου. Τί οὖν ἡμεῖς οἱ ἄνθρωποι ἄλλο τι ποιοῦμεν ἐν τῇ καταδυναστείᾳ τῶν ὑποδεεσ τέρων; τί διαφέρει τοῦ τελευταίου ἰχθύος ὁ τῇ λαιμάργῳ φιλοπλουτίᾳ τοῖς ἀπληρώτοις τῆς πλεονεξίας αὐτοῦ κόλποις ἐναποκρύπτων τοὺς ἀσθενεῖς; Ἐκεῖνος εἶχε τὰ τοῦ πένη τος· σὺ τοῦτον λαβὼν μέρος ἐποιήσω τῆς περιουσίας σεαυτοῦ. Ἀδίκων ἀδικώτερος ἀνεφάνης, καὶ πλεονεκτικώτε ρος πλεονέκτου. Ὅρα μὴ τὸ αὐτό σε πέρας τῶν ἰχθύων ἐκδέξηται, ἄγκιστρόν που, ἢ κύρτος, ἢ δίκτυον. Πάντως γὰρ καὶ ἡμεῖς πολλὰ τῶν ἀδίκων διεξελθόντες, τὴν τελευταίαν τιμωρίαν οὐκ ἀποδρασόμεθα. Ἤδη δὲ καὶ ἐν ἀσθενεῖ ζῴῳ πολὺ τὸ πανοῦργον καὶ ἐπίβουλον καταμα θὼν, βούλομαί σε φυγεῖν τῶν κακούργων τὴν μίμησιν. Ὁ καρκῖνος τῆς σαρκὸς ἐπιθυμεῖ τοῦ ὀστρέου· ἀλλὰ δυσάλωτος ἡ ἄγρα αὐτῷ διὰ τὴν περιβολὴν τοῦ ὀστράκου γίνεται. Ἀρραγεῖ γὰρ ἑρκίῳ τὸ ἁπαλὸν τῆς σαρκὸς ἡ φύσις κατησφαλίσατο. ∆ιὸ καὶ ὀστρακόδερμον προσηγόρευται. Καὶ ἐπειδὴ δύο κοιλότητες ἀκριβῶς ἀλλήλαις προσηρ μοσμέναι τὸ ὄστρεον περιπτύσσονται, ἀναγκαίως ἄπρακτοί εἰσιν αἱ χηλαὶ τοῦ καρκίνου. Τί οὖν