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the soul is shown in our body, providing it with life, the soul will be known by itself from its opposites.

Whether the soul is a substance. That it is a substance is shown thus. First, because the definition of substance also

might reasonably be applied to it, since substance is this, that which is the same and one in number is receptive of contraries in turn. That the soul, without departing from its own nature, admits contraries in turn, is clear to everyone. For justice and injustice; courage and cowardice; temperance and licentiousness, are observed in it, being contraries. If, therefore, it is a property of a substance to be receptive of contraries in turn, and the soul is shown to admit this definition, then the soul is a substance. Then again, since the body is a substance, it is necessary that the soul also be a substance. For it is not possible for that which is given life to be substantial, but for that which gives life to be without substance; unless someone were to say that what is not is the cause of what is; or again, one would have to be mad to say that that which has its existence in something, and which cannot be without it, is the cause of that in which it is.

15Γ_208 Whether the soul is incorporeal. That the soul is in the body was shown above. It is necessary, therefore, to know

how it is in the body; and if it is juxtaposed to it like a pebble to a pebble, the soul will be a body; but the whole body will not be ensouled, for it will be contained in some part. But if it is mixed or mingled, the soul would be said to be multipartite, and not simple, and cast out from the definition of soul. For what is multipartite is also divisible; and what is divisible is also dissoluble; and what is dissoluble is composite; and what is composite is three-dimensionally extended; and what is three-dimensionally extended is a body. But a body added to a body makes bulk. But the soul, being in the body, does not make bulk, 0357 but rather gives life; therefore the soul will not be a body, but incorporeal.

Further, if the soul is a body, it is moved either from within or from without. But it is not moved from without, for it is not pushed or pulled like inanimate things. Nor is it moved from within like ensouled things, for it is absurd to speak of a soul of a soul. Therefore it will not be a body; it is, then, incorporeal.

And again, if the soul is a body, it also has sensible qualities, and is nourished. But it is not nourished; and if it is nourished, it is not nourished bodily as the body is, but incorporeally; for it is nourished by reason. Therefore it does not have sensible qualities. For neither justice, nor courage, nor any of such things is seen. For these are qualities of the soul; therefore it is not a body; it is, then, incorporeal.

Whether the soul is simple. It is shown, therefore, that the soul is simple, from those things from which it was also proved to be incorporeal.

For if it is not a body—for every body is composite; that which is composed is composed of parts—it would not be multipartite either. 15Γ_210 And being incorporeal, it is simple, since it is also incomposite.

Whether the soul is immortal. I think the immortal must follow the simple; and how, listen. For none of the things

that exist is destructive of itself, since it would not have been constituted from the beginning. For things that are destroyed are destroyed by their contraries. Therefore everything that is destroyed is dissoluble; and what is dissoluble is composite; and what is composite is multipartite; and what is composed of parts, is clearly composed of different parts; and what is different is not the same; therefore, the soul

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σώματι ἡμῶν ψυχή δείκνυται τό ζῇν αὐτῷ παρέχουσα, ἔσται καθ' ἑαυτήν ἡ ψυχή ἐκ τῶν ἐναντίων γνωριζομένη.

Εἰ οὐσία ἐστίν ἡ ψυχή. Ὅτι μέν οὐσία ἐστί δείκνυται οὕτως. Πρῶτον μέν, ὅτι ὁ τῆς οὐσίας ὅρος καί

ἐπ᾿ αὐτῇ εἰκότως ἄν λεχθείη, ἐπειδή οὕτως οὐσία ἐστί, τό ταυτόν καί ἕν ἀριθμῷ τῶν ἐναντίως παρά μέρος εἶναι δεκτικόν. Ὅτι δέ ἡ ψυχή, αὐτή τῆς ἰδίας φύσεως μή ἐξισταμένη τά ἐνάντια ἐπιδέχεται κατά μέρος, παντί που δῆλον. ∆ικαιοσύνη γάρ καί ἀδικία· ἀνδρεία τε καί δειλία· σωφροσύνη τε καί ἀκολασία, ἐν αὐτῇ θεωροῦνται ἐναντία ὄντα. Εἰ τοίνυν ἰδίωμα οὐσίας τό τῶν ἐναντίων εἶναι παρά μέρος δεκτικόν· δείκνυται δέ καί ἡ ψυχή τοῦτον ἐπιδεχομένη τόν ὅρον, οὐσία ἄρα ἡ ψυχή. Ἔπειτα δέ καί τοῦ σώματος οὐσίας ὄντος, καί τήν ψυχήν ἀνάγκη οὐσίαν εἶναι. Οὐδέ γάρ οἷον τε τό μέν ζωοποιούμενον εἶναι ἐνούσιον· τό δέ ζωοποιοῦν, ἀνούσιον εἶναι· εἰ μή τις καί τό μή ὄν τοῦ ὄντος αἴτιον φήσειεν εἶναι· ἤ πάλιν τό ἐν ᾧ τήν ὕπαρξιν ἔχον, καί ὅ ἄνευ τοῦ εἶναι μή δυνάμενον, αἰτίαν ἐκείνου εἶναι ἐν ᾧ ἐστι, μανείς τις εἴποι.

15Γ_208 Εἰ ἀσώματος ἡ ψυχή. Ὅτι μέν ἐν τῷ σώματί ἐστιν ἡ ψυχή, ἀνωτέρω ἐδείχθη. ∆εῖ τοίνυν εἰδέναι

πῶς ἐστιν ἐν τῷ σώματι· καί εἰ μέν παράκειται αὐτῷ ὡς ψηφίς ψηφίδι, σῶμα μέν ἔσται ἡ ψυχή· ὅλον δέ τό σῶμα οὐκ ἔσται ἔμψυχον· μέρει γάρ τινι περικείσεται. Εἰ δέ μέμικται ἤ κέκραται, πολυμερής ἄν λέγοιτο ἡ ψυχή, καί οὐχ ἁπλῆ, τοῦ δέ τῆς ψυχῆς λόγου ἐκβεβλημένη. Τό γάρ πολυμερές, καί διαιρετέον ἐστι, τό δέ διαιρετόν, καί διαλυτόν· τό δέ διαλυτόν, σύνθετον· τό δέ σύνθετον, τριχῆ διαστατόν· τό δέ τριχῆ διαστατόν, σῶμα· σῶμα δέ σώματι προστιθέμενον, ὄγκον ποιεῖ. Ἡ δέ ψυχή ἐν τῷ σώματι οὖσα οὐκ ὄγκον ποιεῖ, 0357 ἀλλά μᾶλλον ζωοποιεῖ· οὐκ ἄρα ἔσται σῶμα ἡ ψυχή, ἀλλ᾿ ἀσώματος.

Ἔτι, εἰ σῶμα ἡ ψυχή, ἤ ἔνδοθεν κινεῖται, ἤ ἔξωθεν· οὔτε δέ ἔξωθεν κινεῖται· οὐ γάρ ὠθεῖται, ἤ ἕλκεται ὡς τά ἄψυχα· οὔτε δέ ἔσωθεν κινεῖται ὡς τά ἔμψυχα· ἄτοπον γάρ ψυχῆς ψυχήν λέγειν. Οὐκ ἔσται οὖν σῶμα· ἀσώματος ἄρα.

Καί πάλιν, εἰ σῶμα ἐστιν ἡ ψυχή, καί τάς ποιότητας αἰσθητάς ἔχει, καί τρέφεται· ἀλλ᾿ οὐ τρέφεται· καί εἰ τρέφεται οὐ σωματικῶς τρέφεται ὡς τό σῶμα, ἀλλ᾿ ἀσωμάτως· λόγῳ γάρ τρέφεται. Οὐ τοίνυν τάς ποιότητας αἰσθητάς ἔχει. Οὐ γάρ ὁρᾶται οὔτε δικαιοσύνη, οὔτε ἀνδρεία, οὔτε τῶν τοιούτων οὐδέν. Τῆς γάρ ψυχῆς αἱ ποιότητες αὗται· οὐκ ἔστιν οὖν σῶμα· ἀσώματος ἄρα.

Εἰ ἁπλῆ ἡ ψυχή. ∆είκνυται τοίνυν ὅτι ἁπλῆ ἡ ψυχή, ἐξ ὧν μάλιστα καί ἀσώματος ἀπεδείχθη.

Εἰ γάρ σῶμα οὐκ ἔστι· σῶμα γάρ ἅπαν σύνθετόν ἐστι· τό συγκείμενον, ἐκ μερῶν σύγκειται· οὐκ ἄν οὐδέ πολυμερής 15Γ_210 ἔσται· ἀσώματος δέ οὖσα, ἁπλῆ ἐστιν, ἐπειδή καί ἀσύνθετος.

Εἰ ἀθάνατος ἡ ψυχή. Ἀκολουθεῖν οἶμαι δεῖν τῷ ἁπλῷ, τό ἀθάνατον· καί ὅπως, ἄκουσον. Οὐδέ τῶν

ὄντων αὐτό ἑαυτοῦ φθαρτικόν ἐστιν, ἐπεί οὐκ ἄν οὔτε ἐξ ἀρχῆς συνέστη. Τά γάρ φθειρόμενα, ἐκ τῶν ἀναντίων φθείρεται. ∆ιό πᾶν φθειρόμενον, διαλυτόν ἐστι· τό δέ διαλυτόν, σύνθετον· τό δέ σύνθετον, πολυμερές· τό δέ ἐκ μερῶν συγκείμενον, δηλονότι ἐκ διαφόρων σύγκειται μερῶν· τό δέ διάφορον, οὐ ταυτόν· οὐκοῦν, ἡ ψυχή