51

and steering for themselves their straight courses; so also among the birds one can see them swimming through the air with their wings in a similar manner. So since swimming is one characteristic in both, a certain kinship was provided for them from their genesis from the waters. Except, however, that none of the birds is footless, because for all of them their sustenance comes from the earth, and all necessarily require the service of feet. For the raptors, the sharpness of their claws is for the hunt; for the rest, for the procuring of food and for the other conduct of life, the necessary service of the feet has been bestowed. But a few of the birds are weak-footed, suited neither for walking nor for hunting with their feet; such as the swallows, which can neither walk nor hunt, and the so-called swifts, for which food has been devised from things borne about in the air. For the swallow, flying close to the ground is in place of the service of its feet. 8.3 There are, however, countless differences of kinds even among the birds, which if one should investigate in the same way as we have in part touched upon the examination of the fish, he will find one name for flying things, but countless differences among them in sizes and in shapes and in colors; and according to their lives, and actions, and habits, their variation from one another being indescribable. Now some have indeed tried to use coinages of names, so that, as if by certain brandings of an unusual and strange name, the characteristic of each kind might be recognized. And some they have named 'split-winged' (schizoptera), like the eagles; and others 'skin-winged' (dermoptera), like the bats; and others 'feathered' (ptilota), like the wasps; and others 'sheath-winged' (coleoptera), like the beetles, and all that are born in certain cases and coverings, and when the sheath is broken for them, are set free for flight. But for us a sufficient mark for the peculiarity of the kinds is common usage, and the distinctions from Scripture concerning clean and unclean. One kind, then, is that of the flesh-eaters, and another is their structure, suited to their manner of life: sharp claws, and a hooked beak, and a swift wing, so that the prey may be both easily seized and, torn to pieces, become food for its captor. Different is the structure of the seed-gatherers; different is that of those that feed on whatever they happen upon. And among these there are very many differences. For some of them are gregarious, except for the raptors; and of these nothing is social except for the pairing according to their mates. But countless others have chosen the flocking life, such as doves, and cranes, and starlings, and jackdaws. Again, among these, some are leaderless and, as it were, autonomous; while others accept being arrayed under a leader, like the cranes. And there is also another difference among them, according to which some are resident and native, while others are by nature to depart very far away, and for the most part to migrate as winter approaches. And most birds become tame and domesticated when raised, except indeed for the weak ones, which because of excessive timidity and cowardice do not withstand the constant disturbance of the hand. But some birds are also companionable to humans, accepting the same dwellings as us; while others are mountain-dwelling and lovers of solitude. And the greatest difference is also the peculiarity of each one's voice. For some of the birds are chattering and talkative; others are silent. And some are songful and have many notes; others are completely unmusical and devoid of song. And some are imitative, either having the ability to imitate by nature, or having acquired it through practice; while others emit a monotonous and unchangeable sound. The rooster is proud; the peacock is a lover of beauty; the doves and the domestic fowl are lustful, having the mating instinct at all seasons. The partridge is deceitful and jealous, wickedly cooperating with the hunters for the hunt. 8.4 Countless, as we said, are the differences of both their actions and their lives. And some of the irrational creatures are also political, if indeed it is a property of a state to direct the energy of each one towards one common end, as in the case of the

51

καὶ τὰς εὐθείας ὁρμὰς ἑαυτοῖς οἰακίζοντες· οὕτω καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν πτηνῶν ἐστιν ἰδεῖν διανηχομένων τὸν ἀέρα τοῖς πτεροῖς κατὰ τὸν ὅμοιον τρόπον. Ὥστε ἐπειδὴ ἓν ἰδίωμα ἐν ἑκατέροις τὸ νήχεσθαι, μία τις αὐτοῖς ἡ συγγένεια ἐκ τῆς τῶν ὑδάτων γενέσεως παρεσχέθη. Πλήν γε ὅτι οὐδὲν τῶν πτηνῶν ἄπουν, διὰ τὸ πᾶσι τὴν δίαιταν ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς ὑπάρχειν, καὶ πάντα ἀναγκαίως τῆς τῶν ποδῶν ὑπουργίας προσδεῖσθαι. Τοῖς μὲν γὰρ ἁρπακτικοῖς πρὸς τὴν ἄγραν αἱ τῶν ὀνύχων ἀκμαί· τοῖς δὲ λοιποῖς, διά τε τὸν πορισμὸν τῆς τροφῆς, καὶ διὰ τὴν λοιπὴν τοῦ βίου διεξαγωγὴν, ἀναγκαία τῶν ποδῶν ἡ ὑπηρεσία δεδώρηται. Ὀλίγοι δὲ τῶν ὀρνίθων κακόποδές εἰσιν, οὔτε βαδίζειν οὔτε ἀγρεύειν τοῖς ποσὶν ἐπιτήδειοι· ὡς αἵ τε χελιδόνες εἰσὶ, οὔτε βαδίζειν, οὔτε ἀγρεύειν δυνάμεναι, καὶ αἱ δρεπανίδες λεγό μεναι, οἷς ἡ τροφὴ ἀπὸ τῶν ἐν τῷ ἀέρι ἐμφερομένων ἐπινενόηται. Χελιδόνι δὲ τὸ τῆς πτήσεως πρόσγειον ἀντὶ τῆς τῶν ποδῶν ὑπηρεσίας ἐστίν. 8.3 Εἰσὶ μέντοι γενῶν διαφοραὶ μυρίαι καὶ ἐν τοῖς ὄρνισιν, ἃς ἐάν τις κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον ἐπίῃ καθ' ὃν ἐν μέρει καὶ τῆς τῶν ἰχθύων ἐξετάσεως ἐφηψάμεθα, εὑρήσει ἓν μὲν ὄνομα τῶν πετεινῶν, μυρίας δὲ ἐν τούτοις διαφορὰς ἔν τε τοῖς μεγέθεσι καὶ ἐν τοῖς σχήμασι καὶ ἐν ταῖς χρόαις· καὶ κατὰ τοὺς βίους, καὶ τὰς πράξεις, καὶ τὰ ἤθη, ἀμύθητον οὖσαν αὐτοῖς τὴν πρὸς ἄλληλα παραλλαγήν. Ἤδη μὲν οὖν τινες ἐπειράθησαν καὶ ὀνοματοποιίαις χρήσασθαι, ἵν', ὥσπερ διὰ καυτήρων τινῶν τῆς ἀσυνήθους καὶ ξένης ὀνομασίας, τὸ ἰδίωμα ἑκάστου γένους ἐπιγινώσκηται. Καὶ τὰ μὲν ὠνόμασαν σχιζόπτερα, ὡς τοὺς ἀετούς· τὰ δὲ δερμόπτερα, ὡς τὰς νυκτερίδας· τὰ δὲ πτιλωτὰ, ὡς τοὺς σφῆκας· τὰ δὲ κολεόπτερα, ὡς τοὺς κανθάρους, καὶ ὅσα ἐν θήκαις τισὶ καὶ περιβολαῖς γεννηθέντα, περιρραγέντος αὐτοῖς τοῦ ἐλύτρου, πρὸς τὴν πτῆσιν ἠλευθερώθη. Ἀλλ' ἡμῖν ἀρκοῦσα σημείωσις πρὸς τὴν τῶν γενῶν ἰδιότητα ἡ κοινὴ χρῆσις, καὶ οἱ παρὰ τῆς Γραφῆς περί τε καθαρῶν καὶ ἀκαθάρτων διορισμοί. Ἄλλο μὲν οὖν γένος τὸ τῶν σαρκοφά γων, καὶ ἄλλη κατασκευὴ πρέπουσα τῷ τρόπῳ τῆς διαίτης αὐτῶν, ὀνύχων ἀκμαὶ, καὶ χεῖλος ἀγκύλον, καὶ πτερὸν ὀξὺ, ὥστε καὶ συλληφθῆναι ῥᾳδίως τὸ θήραμα, καὶ διασπα ραγὲν τροφὴν τῷ ἑλόντι γενέσθαι. Ἄλλη τῶν σπερμολόγων κατασκευή· ἄλλη τῶν ἐκ παντὸς τρεφομένων τοῦ συν τυχόντος. Καὶ ἐν τούτοις πλεῖσται διαφοραί. Τὰ μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν ἐστιν ἀγελικὰ, πλὴν τῶν ἁρπακτικῶν· τούτων δὲ οὐδὲν κοινωνικὸν ἐκτὸς τοῦ κατὰ τὰς συζυγίας συνδυα σμοῦ. Μυρία δὲ ἄλλα τὸν ἀθροισματικὸν ᾕρηται βίον, ὡς περιστεραὶ, καὶ γέρανοι, καὶ ψῆρες, καὶ κολοιοί. Πάλιν ἐν τούτοις τὰ μὲν ἄναρχά ἐστι καὶ οἷον αὐτόνομα· τὰ δὲ ὑφ' ἡγεμόνι τετάχθαι καταδεχόμενα, ὡς αἱ γέρανοι. Ἤδη δέ τις καὶ ἑτέρα ἐν τούτοις ἐστὶ διαφορὰ, καθ' ἣν τὰ μὲν ἐπιδημητικά τέ ἐστι καὶ ἐγχώρια, τὰ δὲ ἀπαίρειν πέφυκε πορροτάτω, καὶ χειμῶνος ἐγγίζοντος ἐκτοπίζειν ὡς τὰ πολλά. Χειροήθη δὲ καὶ τιθασσὰ τὰ πολλὰ τῶν ὀρνέων ἐκτρεφόμενα γίνεται, πλήν γε δὴ τῶν ἀσθενῶν, ἃ δι' ὑπερβάλλουσαν δειλίαν καὶ ἀνανδρίαν, τὴν συνεχῆ τῆς χειρὸς ἐνόχλησιν οὐχ ὑφίσταται. Ἀλλὰ καὶ συνανθρωπι στικοί τινες τῶν ὀρνίθων εἰσὶ, τὰς αὐτὰς ἡμῖν οἰκήσεις καταδεχόμενοι· ἄλλοι δὲ ὄρειοι, καὶ φιλέρημοι. Μεγίστη δὲ διαφορὰ καὶ ἡ περὶ τὴν φωνὴν ἰδιότης ἑκάστου. Οἱ μὲν γὰρ κωτίλοι καὶ λάλοι τῶν ὀρνίθων εἰσίν· οἱ δὲ σιγηλοί. Καὶ τὰ μὲν ᾠδικὰ καὶ πολύφωνα· τὰ δὲ ἄμουσα παντελῶς καὶ ᾠδῆς ἄμοιρα. Καὶ τὰ μὲν μιμηλὰ, ἢ ἐκ φύσεως ἔχοντα τὸ μιμεῖσθαι, ἢ ἐξ ἀσκήσεως προσλαβόντα· τὰ δὲ μονό τροπον καὶ ἀμετάβλητον τὴν φωνὴν ἀφιέντα. Γαῦρον ὁ ἀλεκτρυών· φιλόκαλον ὁ ταώς· λάγνιοι αἱ περιστεραὶ καὶ αἱ κατοικίδιοι ὄρνεις, ἐπὶ παντὸς καιροῦ τὸ συνουσιαστικὸν ἔχουσαι. ∆ολερὸν ὁ πέρδιξ καὶ ζηλότυπον, κακούργως συμπράττων τοῖς θηραταῖς πρὸς τὴν ἄγραν. 8.4 Μυρίαι, ὡς ἔφαμεν, καὶ τῶν πράξεων καὶ τῶν βίων διαφοραί. Ἔστι δέ τινα καὶ πολιτικὰ τῶν ἀλόγων, εἴπερ πολιτείας ἴδιον, τὸ πρὸς ἓν πέρας κοινὸν συννεύειν τὴν ἐνέργειαν τῶν καθ' ἕκαστον, ὡς ἐπὶ τῶν