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such-and-such and such-and-such a horse exist; and their containing species is the horse simply. Again, hypostases are this and that olive plant; and their containing species is the olive simply. It should be known, therefore, that the containing [forms] of individuals alone are called the most specific species, such as the angel, the man, the horse, the dog, the olive, the palm, and such things, while the containing [forms] of the most specific species alone are called genera and subordinate species, such as the bodiless, the body, the inanimate, the insensible, the vegetative, the animate, the sensible, the animal, the rational, the irrational, the mortal, the immortal, the biped, the quadruped, the crawling, the flying, and all such things, which contain the most specific species and are their genera and their constitutive differentiae, but are contained by the most general genus, which is substance. And one must understand the same things in another way. All things that came to be by one command of God are of one genus, for example, God commanded fish to come to be, and many different kinds of fish came to be; all fish are of one genus, but each different kind of fish is a species. Again, God commanded the waters to bring forth birds, and many different kinds of birds came to be; all birds are of one genus, but each different kind of bird is a species of that genus of birds. Likewise also for reptiles and cattle and beasts and herbs and vegetables and trees. And one genus is spoken of for all animals, and one genus for all plants, and one genus for the completely inanimate and those not having at all a power of growth or nutrition, and again one genus for the incorporeal and one genus for bodies; and all creation is also called one genus, and the differences of created things are many species under the genus of creation, and all substance is one genus. 8 Concerning activity. Activity is an active movement of the agent. Natural activity is an active movement of a nature, such as the rational movement of the mind, the vital, the sensitive, the nutritive, the growth-producing, the generative, and movement according to impulse, that is, the movements of the body, and the imaginative and the mnemonic, and the spirited and the desiderative and the volitional, that is, the appetitive, and such things. This is of five kinds: either intellectual, as in the case of angels and all incorporeal substances, who understand by a simple application; -or rational, as in the case of men, who are composed of an incorporeal soul and a body, understanding not by a simple but by a varied and discursive application; -or vital, as in the case of irrational animals, which have sensation but neither reason nor understand; -or vegetative, as in the case of insensible things which have nutritive, growth-producing, and generative power; -or completely lifeless, as in the case of earth and stones, which have neither vital nor nutritive nor growth-producing power, but are not without certain natural activities. 9 Concerning passion. Natural passion is a passive movement of the nature of the one being affected. This is an activity of the nature, but a passion of that which the activity is about, such as generation, joy, grief, agony, distress, fear, hesitation, toil, sleep, pleasure, pain, anger, desire, cutting, flowing, and corruption, and such things. These and such passions are natural and blameless, not being in our power. But sin alone is contrary to nature, a voluntary and self-chosen passion of the soul, most evil and corrupting. 10 Concerning will. Will is a natural, rational appetite. And again, will is a natural, rational and

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εἰσὶν ὁ δεῖνα καὶ ὁ δεῖνα ὁ ἵππος· καὶ περιεκτικὸν αὐτῶν εἶδος ὁ ἵππος ὁ ἁπλῶς. Πάλιν ὑποστάσεις εἰσὶ τόδε καὶ τόδε τὸ φυτὸν τῆς ἐλαίας· περιεκτικὸν δὲ αὐτῶν εἶδος ἡ ἁπλῶς ἐλαία. Ἰστέον οὖν, ὡς τὰ περιεκτικὰ τῶν ἀτόμων μόνον εἴδη λέγονται εἰδικώτατα οἷον ὁ ἄγγελος, ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ὁ ἵππος, ὁ κύων, ἡ ἐλαία, ὁ φοῖνιξ καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα, τὰ δὲ περιεκτικὰ τῶν εἰδικωτάτων εἰδῶν μόνον γένη λέγονται καὶ εἴδη ὑπάλληλα οἷον τὸ ἀσώματον, τὸ σῶμα, τὸ ἄψυχον, τὸ ἀναίσθητον, τὸ φυτικόν, τὸ ἔμψυχον, τὸ αἰσθητικόν, τὸ ζῷον, τὸ λογικόν, τὸ ἄλογον, τὸ θνητόν, τὸ ἀθάνατον, τὸ δίπουν, τὸ τετράπουν, τὸ ἑρπυστικόν, τὸ πτηνὸν καὶ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα, τὰ περιέχοντα μὲν τὰ εἰδικώτατα εἴδη καὶ γένη αὐτῶν ὄντα καὶ συστατικαὶ αὐτῶν διαφοραί, περιεχόμενα δὲ ὑπὸ τοῦ γενικωτάτου γένους, ἥτις ἐστὶν ἡ οὐσία. Καὶ ἄλλως δὲ περὶ τῶν αὐτῶν διαληπτέον. Πάντα, ὅσα ἑνὶ προστάγματι θεοῦ ἐγένοντο, ἑνὸς γένους εἰσίν, οἷον προσέταξεν ὁ θεὸς γενέσθαι ἰχθύας, καὶ ἐγένοντο διαφοραὶ ἰχθύων πολλαί· πάντες οἱ ἰχθύες ἑνὸς γένους εἰσίν, ἑκάστη δὲ διαφορὰ ἰχθύων εἶδός ἐστιν. Πάλιν προσέταξεν ὁ θεὸς ἐξαγαγεῖν τὰ ὕδατα πετεινά, καὶ ἐγένοντο διαφοραὶ πολλαὶ πετεινῶν· πάντα τὰ πετεινὰ ἑνὸς γένους εἰσίν, ἑκάστη δὲ διαφορὰ τῶν πετεινῶν εἶδός ἐστι τοῦ γένους ἐκείνου τῶν πετεινῶν. Ὁμοίως καὶ ἐπὶ ἑρπετῶν καὶ κτηνῶν καὶ θηρίων καὶ βοτανῶν καὶ λαχάνων καὶ δένδρων. Λέγεται δὲ καὶ ἓν γένος ὅλων τῶν ζῴων καὶ ἓν γένος τῶν φυτῶν ὅλων καὶ ἓν γένος τῶν παντελῶς ἀψύχων καὶ μὴ ἐχόντων ὅλως αὐξητικὴν ἢ θρεπτικὴν δύναμιν καὶ πάλιν ἓν γένος τῶν ἀσωμάτων καὶ ἓν γένος τῶν σωμάτων· λέγεται δὲ καὶ πᾶσα ἡ κτίσις ἓν γένος, καὶ πολλὰ εἴδη ὑπὸ τὸ γένος τῆς κτίσεως αἱ διαφοραὶ τῶν κτισμάτων, καὶ πᾶσα ἡ οὐσία ἓν γένος. 8 Περὶ ἐνεργείας. Ἐνέργειά ἐστι κίνησις δραστικὴ τοῦ ποιοῦντος. Ἐνέργεια δὲ φυσική ἐστι κίνησις φύσεως δραστικὴ οἷον ἡ λογικὴ τοῦ νοῦ κίνησις, τὸ ζωτικόν, τὸ αἰσθητικόν, τὸ θρεπτικόν, τὸ αὐξητικόν, τὸ γεννητικὸν καὶ ἡ καθ' ὁρμὴν κίνησις, τουτέστιν αἱ κινήσεις τοῦ σώματος, καὶ τὸ φανταστικὸν καὶ τὸ μνημονευτικὸν τό τε θυμικὸν καὶ ἐπιθυμητικὸν καὶ θελητικὸν ἤγουν ὀρεκτικὸν καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. Πεντάτροπος δέ ἐστιν αὕτη· ἢ νοερὰ ὡς ἐπὶ ἀγγέλων καὶ πασῶν ἀσωμάτων οὐσιῶν ἁπλῇ προσβολῇ νοούντων· -ἢ λογικὴ ὡς ἐπὶ ἀνθρώπων τῶν ἐκ ψυχῆς ἀσωμάτου καὶ σώματος συντεθειμένων, οὐχ ἁπλῇ ἀλλὰ ποικίλῃ καὶ διαλογιστικῇ προσβολῇ νοούντων· -ἢ ζωτικὴ ὡς ἐπὶ ἀλόγων ζῴων αἴσθησιν μὲν ἐχόντων, μὴ λογιζομένων δὲ μηδὲ νοούντων· -ἢ φυτικὴ ὡς ἐπὶ ἀναισθήτων ἐχόντων δὲ θρεπτικὴν καὶ αὐξητικὴν καὶ γεννητικὴν δύναμιν· -ἢ ἄζωος παντελῶς ὡς ἐπὶ γῆς καὶ λίθων τῶν μήτε ζωτικὴν μήτε θρεπτικὴν μήτε αὐξητικὴν δύναμιν ἐχόντων, μὴ ἀμοιρούντων δὲ φυσικῶν τινων ἐνεργειῶν. 9 Περὶ πάθους. Πάθος ἐστὶ φυσικὸν κίνησις φύσεως παθητικὴ τοῦ πάσχοντος. Ἥτις τῆς μὲν φύσεώς ἐστιν ἐνέργεια, πάθος δὲ τοῦ, περὶ ὃ ἡ ἐνέργεια, οἷον γένεσις, χαρά, λύπη, ἀγωνία, ἀδημονία, φόβος, ὄκνος, κόπος, ὕπνος, ἡδονή, πόνος, θυμός, ἐπιθυμία, τομή, ῥεῦσις καὶ φθορὰ καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. Ταῦτα καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα πάθη φυσικά εἰσι καὶ ἀδιάβλητα οὐκ ἐφ' ἡμῖν ὄντα. Μόνη δὲ ἡ ἁμαρτία παρὰ φύσιν ἐστὶν ἑκούσιον καὶ αὐθαίρετον τῆς ψυχῆς πάθος κάκιστον καὶ φθορά. 10 Περὶ θελήματος. Θέλησίς ἐστι φυσικὴ λογικὴ ὄρεξις. Καὶ πάλιν θέλησίς ἐστι φυσικὴ λογικὴ καὶ