Chapter 3

Philosophy is knowledge of things which are in so far as they are, that is, a knowledge of the nature of things which have being. And again, philosophy is knowledge of both divine and human things, that is to say, of things both visible and invisible. Philosophy, again, is a study of death, whether this be voluntary or natural. For life is of two kinds, there being the natural life by which we live and the voluntary one by which we cling lovingly to this present life. Death, also, is of two kinds: the one being natural, which is the separation of soul from body, whereas the other is the voluntary one by which we disdain this present life and aspire to that which is to come. Still again, philosophy is the making of one’s self like God. Now, we become like God in wisdom, which is to say, in the true knowledge of good; and in justice, which is a fairness in judgment without respect to persons; and in holiness, which is to say, in goodness, which is superior to justice, being that by which we do good to them that wrong us. Philosophy is the art of arts and the science of sciences. This is because philosophy is the principle of every art, since through it every art and science has been invented. Now, according to some, art is what errs in some people and science what errs in no one, whereas philosophy alone does not err. According to others, art is that which is done with the hands, whereas science is any art that is practiced by the reason, such as grammar, rhetoric, and the like. Philosophy, again, is a love of wisdom. But, true wisdom is God. Therefore, the love of God, this is the true philosophy.

Philosophy is divided into speculative and practical. The speculative is divided into theology, physiology, and mathematics. The practical is divided into ethics, domestic economy, and politics. Now, the speculative is the orderly disposition of knowledge. So, theology is the consideration of incorporeal and immaterial things—first of all, of God, who is absolutely immaterial; and then of angels and souls. Physiology, however, is the knowledge of the material things that are close at hand to us, such as animals, plants, stones, and the like. Mathematics is the knowledge of things which are in themselves incorporeal but which are found in corporeal beings—such, I mean, as numbers and musical notes, and, in addition, such things as geometrical figures and the movements of the stars. Thus it is that the logical consideration of numbers constitutes the science of arithmetic; that of the musical sounds, music; that of geometrical figures, geometry; that of the stars, astronomy. These stand midway between things that have bodies and things which have not, for, while number is in itself incorporeal, it is also found in material things, such as grain, for example, or wine, or any other such thing. Practical philosophy, moreover, is concerned with the virtues. It governs manners and shows how one must behave in society. If it lays down laws for the individual man, it is called ethics; but, if for the entire household, then it is called domestic economy; while, if for cities and countries, then it is called politics.

There are, however, some people who have endeavored to do away entirely with philosophy by asserting that it does not exist and that neither does any knowledge or perception exist. We shall answer them by asking: How is it that you say that there is neither philosophy, nor knowledge, nor perception? Is it by your knowing and perceiving it, or is it by your not knowing and perceiving it?. If you have perceived it, well, that is knowledge and perception. But if it is by your not knowing it, then no one will believe you, as long as you are discussing something of which you have no knowledge.

Since, then, there is such a thing as philosophy and since there is knowledge of things that are, let us talk about being. However, one should understand that we are beginning with that division of philosophy which concerns the reason and which is a tool of philosophy rather than one of its divisions, because it is used for every demonstration. So, for the present, we shall discuss simple terms which through simple concepts signify simple things. Then, after we have explained the meanings of the words, we shall investigate dialectic.

{Περὶ φιλοσοφίας.} αʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶ γνῶσις τῶν ὄντων, ᾗ ὄντα ἐστί, τουτέστι γνῶσις τῆς τῶν ὄντων φύσεως. Καὶ πάλιν: βʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶ γνῶσις θείων τε καὶ ἀνθρωπίνων πραγμάτων τουτέστιν ὁρατῶν τε καὶ ἀοράτων. γʹ Φιλοσοφία πάλιν ἐστὶ μελέτη θανάτου τοῦ προαιρετικοῦ καὶ τοῦ φυσικοῦ: διττὴ γὰρ ἡ ζωὴ ἥ τε φυσική, καθ' ἣν ζῶμεν, καὶ ἡ προαιρετική, καθ' ἣν προσπαθῶς τῆς παρούσης ζωῆς ἀντεχόμεθα. Διττὸς καὶ ὁ θάνατος ὅ τε φυσικός, ὅς ἐστι χωρισμὸς ψυχῆς ἀπὸ σώματος, καὶ ὁ προαιρετικός, καθ' ὃν τῆς παρούσης ζωῆς καταφρονοῦντες πρὸς τὴν μέλλουσαν ἐπειγόμεθα. δʹ Φιλοσοφία αὖθίς ἐστιν ὁμοίωσις θεῷ. Ὁμοιούμεθα δὲ θεῷ κατὰ τὸ σοφὸν ἤτοι τὴν τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ γνῶσιν τὴν ἀληθῆ καὶ κατὰ τὸ δίκαιον, ὅ ἐστι τὸ τοῦ ἴσου διανεμητικὸν καὶ ἀπροσωπόληπτον ἐν κρίσει καὶ κατὰ τὸ ὅσιον δέ, τὸ ὑπὲρ τὸ δίκαιον, ἤτοι τὸ ἀγαθὸν τὸ εὐεργετεῖν τοὺς αὑτὸν ἀδικοῦντας. εʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶ τέχνη τεχνῶν καὶ ἐπιστήμη ἐπιστημῶν. Ἡ γὰρ φιλοσοφία ἀρχή ἐστι πάσης τέχνης: δι' αὐτῆς γὰρ πᾶσα τέχνη εὕρηται καὶ πᾶσα ἐπιστήμη. Τέχνη μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἡ ἔν τισι σφαλλομένη κατά τινας, ἐπιστήμη δὲ ἡ ἐν μηδενὶ σφαλλομένη: μόνη δὲ ἡ φιλοσοφία οὐ σφάλλεται. Καθ' ἑτέρους δὲ τέχνη μέν ἐστιν ἡ διὰ χειρῶν ἐργαζομένη, ἐπιστήμη δὲ πᾶσα λογικὴ τέχνη, γραμματική, ῥητορικὴ καὶ αἱ τοιαῦται. Ϛʹ Φιλοσοφία πάλιν ἐστὶ φιλία σοφίας. Σοφία δὲ ἀληθὴς ὁ θεός ἐστιν: ἡ οὖν ἀγάπη ἡ πρὸς τὸν θεὸν αὕτη ἐστὶν ἡ ἀληθὴς φιλοσοφία. Διαιρεῖται δὲ ἡ φιλοσοφία εἰς θεωρητικὸν καὶ πρακτικόν, τὸ θεωρητικὸν εἰς θεολογικόν, φυσικόν, μαθηματικόν, τὸ δὲ πρακτικὸν εἰς ἠθικόν, οἰκονομικόν, πολιτικόν. Θεωρητικὸν μὲν οὖν ἐστι τὸ τὴν γνῶσιν κοσμοῦν. Ἔστιν οὖν θεολογικὸν τὸ κατανοεῖν τὰ ἀσώματα καὶ ἄυλα, πρῶτον μὲν θεὸν τὸν ὄντως ἄυλον, ἔπειτα δὲ καὶ ἀγγέλους καὶ ψυχάς. Φυσιολογικὸν δὲ ἡ τῶν ὑλικῶν καὶ προχείρων ἡμῖν γνῶσις ἤτοι ζῴων, φυτῶν, λίθων καὶ τῶν τοιούτων. Μαθηματικὸν δὲ ἡ τῶν καθ' αὑτὰ μὲν ἀσωμάτων, ἐν σώμασι δὲ θεωρουμένων γνῶσις, ἀριθμῶν φημι καὶ ἁρμονίας φθόγγων, ἔτι δὲ σχημάτων καὶ ἄστρων κινήσεως. Ἡ μὲν οὖν περὶ ἀριθμοὺς θεωρία τὴν ἀριθμητικὴν συνίστησιν ἐπιστήμην, ἡ δὲ περὶ φθόγγους τὴν μουσικήν, ἡ δὲ περὶ σχήματα τὴν γεωμετρικήν, ἡ δὲ περὶ ἄστρα τὴν ἀστρονομικήν. Ταῦτα δὲ μέσα σωμάτων καὶ ἀσωμάτων εἰσίν: ὁ γὰρ ἀριθμὸς καθ' αὑτὸν μὲν ἀσώματός ἐστι, θεωρεῖται δὲ καὶ ἐν ὕλῃ, σίτῳ τυχὸν ἢ οἴνῳ ἤ τινι τῶν τοιούτων. Τὸ δὲ πρακτικὸν περὶ ἀρετὰς καταγίνεται: ἦθος γὰρ κοσμεῖ καί, πῶς δεῖ πολιτεύεσθαι, διδάσκει. Καὶ εἰ μὲν ἑνὶ ἀνθρώπῳ νομοθετεῖ, λέγεται ἠθικόν, εἰ δὲ ὅλῳ οἴκῳ, λέγεται οἰκονομικόν, εἰ δὲ πόλεσι καὶ χώραις, λέγεται πολιτικόν. Ἀλλ' ἀναιρεῖν ἐπεχείρησάν τινες τὴν φιλοσοφίαν φάσκοντες μὴ εἶναι ταύτην μηδὲ γνῶσίν τινα ἢ κατάληψιν. Πρὸς οὓς ἐροῦμεν: Πῶς φατε μὴ εἶναι φιλοσοφίαν καὶ γνῶσιν καὶ κατάληψιν, ἐγνωκότες καὶ κατειληφότες ἢ μὴ ἐγνωκότες μηδὲ κατειληφότες; Εἰ μὲν οὖν κατειληφότες, ἰδοὺ ἔστι γνῶσις καὶ κατάληψις, εἰ δὲ μὴ ἐγνωκότες, οὐδεὶς ὑμῖν πιστεύσει περὶ πράγματος διαλεγομένοις, οὗ τὴν γνῶσιν οὐ κατειλήφατε. Ἐπεὶ τοίνυν ἔστι φιλοσοφία καὶ γνῶσις τῶν ὄντων ἐστί, περὶ τοῦ ὄντος εἴπωμεν. Εἰδέναι δὲ δεῖ, ὡς τοῦ λογικοῦ μέρους τῆς φιλοσοφίας ἀρχόμεθα, ὅπερ ὄργανόν ἐστι μᾶλλον τῆς φιλοσοφίας ἤπερ μέρος: αὐτῷ γὰρ πρὸς πᾶσαν ἀπόδειξιν κέχρηται. Διαλεγόμεθα οὖν περὶ ἁπλῶν φωνῶν τέως δι' ἁπλῶν ἐννοιῶν ἁπλᾶ δηλουσῶν πράγματα: πρότερον γὰρ τὴν τῶν λέξεων σημασίαν δηλώσαντες οὕτω καὶ περὶ λόγων διασκεψόμεθα.