John of Damascus, Philosophical Fragments

differing according to genus and not being of the same substance. Things are of different species which differ according to species, that is, according to substance. Things are of the same substance which partake of the same substance. Things are of a different substance which differ according to substance. Things are of a different hypostasis which are divided according to hypostasis. Things of the same nature are of the same substance, things of a different nature are of a different substance. Of the same genus and of the same nature and of the same species and of the same substance are the same thing; of a different genus and of a different nature and of a different species and of a different substance are not the same thing. 14 <Concerning homonyms and heteronyms and such things> Things are homonymous of which only the name is common, but the definition of the substance corresponding to the name is different, that is, things having the same name, but the meaning signified by the name is different in each case, as John the Baptist and John the Apostle, both having one name, "John", but the meaning signified by the name is different in each case; for the one is the Baptist and the other the Apostle, and the one is the son of Zacharias, the other of Zebedee. -Things are synonymous of which both the name is common and the definition of the substance corresponding to the name is the same, that is, things having the same name and the meaning signified by the name, that is, the definition of the common name itself, as both man and horse are "animal"; for both share in "animal" and in its definition, for each of them is called an animal and admits the same definition of animal, for it is an ensouled, sentient substance. -Things are polyonymous when many names are said of one thing, as aor, xiphos, machaira, spathe; for all these names signify the same thing and have one definition, for their definition is a two-edged iron. - Things are heteronymous which share neither in name nor in definition, of which both the name and the definition of the substance are different. If, then, they have one subject, they are called heteronymous, such as "ascent" and "descent"; for they have one subject, the ladder. -Things are "different" of which both the name and the definition of the substance are different, and they do not have one subject, as substance and accident. -Things are paronymous which have their designation from something, as from justice, "just". 15 <Concerning the common and the subject> The common is either that which is observed in many or that which is predicated of many. "Common" is said in four ways: either that which is divisible into parts, as land that is inherited, or that which is taken indivisibly in common use but not simultaneously, as one slave or one horse of two masters, or that which is appropriated by preemption, but referred back to the common, such as a place in a theater or in a bath, or that which is put forth indivisibly into a common and same concept, as the voice of the herald was taken here in this manner; the definition is the <voice> that by itself makes known the whole of which it is. The subject is said to be substance itself. It is said "of a subject" when universals are predicated of particulars, and "in a subject" as accidents are in substances, such as whiteness in a swan. The subject is twofold: the one for existence, the other for predication. And they say that substance is subject to accidents for existence, while particulars are subject to universals for predication. That is "in a subject" which, being in something not as a part, cannot exist apart from that in which it is, as color in a body; for color is not a part of the substance of the body, but color cannot exist outside of the body. A universal is that which signifies many things, as "man"; for it signifies all men, who are many. -A particular is that which is divided from the universal and is subject to it, as Peter, Paul, and each one of the men. -A synonymous predication is when also

διαφέροντα κατὰ τὸ γένος καὶ μὴ ὄντα ὁμοούσια. Ἑτεροειδῆ εἰσι τὰ διαφέροντα κατὰ τὸ εἶδος ἤγουν κατὰ τὴν οὐσίαν. Ὁμοούσιά εἰσι τὰ τῆς αὐτῆς οὐσίας μετέχοντα. Ἑτεροούσιά εἰσι τὰ διαφέροντα κατὰ τὴν οὐσίαν. Ἑτεροϋπόστατά εἰσι τὰ διαιρούμενα κατὰ τὴν ὑπόστασιν. Ὁμοφυῆ εἰσι τὰ ὁμοούσια, ἑτεροφυῆ εἰσι τὰ ἑτεροούσια. Ὁμογενῆ καὶ ὁμοφυῆ καὶ ὁμοειδῆ καὶ ὁμοούσια ταὐτόν εἰσιν· ἑτερογενῆ καὶ ἑτεροφυῆ καὶ ἑτεροειδῆ καὶ ἑτεροούσια ταὐτὸν οὔκ εἰσιν. 14 <Περὶ ὁμωνύμων καὶ ἑτερωνύμων καὶ τοιούτων> Ὁμώνυμά εἰσιν, ὧν ὄνομα μόνον κοινόν, ὁ δὲ κατὰ τοὔνομα λόγος τῆς οὐσίας ἕτερος, ἤγουν τὰ τὸ αὐτὸ ὄνομα ἔχοντα, τὸ δὲ ἐκ τοῦ ὀνόματος σημαινόμενον ἕτερον καὶ ἕτερον, ὡς Ἰωάννης ὁ βαπτιστὴς καὶ Ἰωάννης ὁ ἀπόστολος ἓν ὄνομα ἔχοντες ἀμφότεροι τὸ «Ἰωάννης», ἄλλο δὲ καὶ ἄλλο τὸ ἐκ τοῦ ὀνόματος σημαινόμενον· ὁ μὲν γὰρ βαπτιστὴς ὁ δὲ ἀπόστολος, καὶ ὁ μὲν Ζαχαρίου υἱὸς ὁ δὲ Ζεβεδαίου. -Συνώνυμα δέ εἰσιν, ὧν τό τε ὄνομα κοινὸν καὶ ὁ κατὰ τοὔνομα λόγος τῆς οὐσίας ὁ αὐτός, ἤγουν τὰ τὸ αὐτὸ ὄνομα ἔχοντα καὶ τὸ ἐκ τοῦ ὀνόματος σημαινόμενον τουτέστι τὸν ὅρον αὐτοῦ τοῦ κοινοῦ ὀνόματος, ὡς ζῷον ὅ τε ἄνθρωπος καὶ ὁ ἵππος· ἀμφότερα γὰρ κοινωνοῦσι τοῦ ζῴου καὶ τοῦ ὅρου, ἕκαστον γὰρ αὐτῶν ζῷον λέγεται καὶ τὸν αὐτὸν ὅρον τοῦ ζῴου ἐπιδέχεται, οὐσία γάρ ἐστιν ἔμψυχος αἰσθητική. -Πολυώνυμά εἰσι πολλὰ ὀνόματα καθ' ἑνὸς πράγματος λεγόμενα ὡς ἄορ, ξίφος, μάχαιρα, σπάθη· ταῦτα γὰρ πάντα τὰ ὀνόματα τὸ αὐτὸ δηλοῦσι καὶ ἕνα ὅρον ἔχουσιν, ὅρος γὰρ αὐτῶν ἐστι σίδηρος ἀμφήκης. - Ἑτερώνυμα δὲ τὰ μήτε τῷ ὀνόματι μήτε τῷ ὅρῳ κοινωνοῦντα, ὧν τό τε ὄνομα καὶ ὁ λόγος τῆς οὐσίας ἕτερος. Εἰ μὲν οὖν ἔχουσιν ἓν ὑποκείμενον, λέγονται ἑτερώνυμα οἷον ἀνάβασις καὶ κατάβασις· ἔχουσι γὰρ ἓν ὑποκείμενον, τὴν κλίμακα. -Ἕτερα δέ εἰσιν, ὧν τό τε ὄνομα καὶ ὁ τῆς οὐσίας λόγος ἕτερος, καὶ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἓν ὑποκείμενον ὡς οὐσία καὶ συμβεβηκός. -Παρώνυμα δέ εἰσι τὰ ἀπό τινος ἔχοντα τὴν προσηγορίαν ὡς ἐκ τῆς δικαιοσύνης δίκαιος. 15 <Περὶ κοινοῦ καὶ ὑποκειμένου> Κοινόν ἐστιν ἢ τὸ ἐν πολλοῖς θεωρούμενον ἢ τὸ ἐκ πολλῶν κατηγορούμενον. Κοινὸν δὲ τετραχῶς λέγεται ἢ τὸ εἰς τὰ μέρη διαιρετὸν ὡς ἡ κληρουχουμένη γῆ, ἢ τὸ ἀδιαιρέτως ἐν χρήσει κοινῇ λαμβανόμενον οὐχ ἅμα δὲ ὡς εἷς δοῦλος ἢ εἷς ἵππος δύο δεσποτῶν, ἢ τὸ ἐν προκαταλήψει ἰδιοποιούμενον, εἰς δὲ τὸ κοινὸν ἀναπεμπόμενον οἷον ὡς ἐν θεάτρῳ τόπος ἢ ὁ ἐν βαλανείῳ, ἢ τὸ ἀδιαιρέτως εἰς κοινὴν καὶ τὴν αὐτὴν ἔννοιαν προβαλλόμενον, ὡς ἡ φωνὴ τοῦ κήρυκος κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον ἐνταῦθα ἐλήφθη· ὁ λόγος ἐστὶν ἡ περὶ ὅλου, οὗ ἐστι, δι' ἑαυτῆς γνωρίζουσα <φωνή>. Ὑποκείμενον λέγεται ἡ οὐσία αὐτή. Καθ' ὑποκειμένου δὲ λέγεται, ὅταν τὰ καθ' ὅλου τῶν μερικῶν κατηγορῆται, ἐν ὑποκειμένῳ δὲ ὡς ἐν ταῖς οὐσίαις τὰ συμβεβηκότα οἷον ὡς τὸ λευκὸν ἐν κύκνῳ. Τὸ ὑποκείμενον διττόν ἐστι· τὸ μὲν πρὸς ὕπαρξιν, τὸ δὲ πρὸς κατηγορίαν. Καὶ πρὸς ὕπαρξιν μὲν ὑποκεῖσθαι λέγουσι τὴν οὐσίαν τοῖς συμβεβηκόσι, πρὸς κατηγορίαν δὲ τὰ μερικὰ τοῖς καθ' ὅλου. Ἐν ὑποκειμένῳ ἐστίν, ὃ ἔν τινι μὴ ὡς μέρος ὑπάρχον ἀδύνατον χωρὶς εἶναι τοῦ, ἐν ᾧ ἐστιν, ὡς τὸ χρῶμα ἐν σώματι· οὐ γάρ ἐστι τὸ χρῶμα μέρος τῆς οὐσίας τοῦ σώματος, τὸ δὲ χρῶμα οὐ δύναται εἶναι ἐκτὸς τοῦ σώματος. Καθόλου ἐστι τὸ πολλὰ σημαῖνον ὡς ἄνθρωπος· σημαίνει γὰρ πάντας τοὺς ἀνθρώπους πολλοὺς ὄντας. -Μερικὸν δὲ τὸ ἐκ τοῦ καθόλου διαιρεθὲν καὶ ὑποκείμενον αὐτῷ ὡς Πέτρος, Παῦλος καὶ εἷς ἕκαστος τῶν ἀνθρώπων. -Συνώνυμος κατηγορία ἐστίν, ὅταν καὶ