Chap. XIII.—Of the Advantage and Use of the World and of the Seasons.

If any one considers the whole government of the world, he will certainly understand how true is the opinion of the Stoics, who say that the world was made on our account. For all the things of which the world is composed, and which it produces from itself, are adapted to the use of man. Man, accordingly, uses fire for the purpose of warmth and light, and of softening his food, and for the working of iron; he uses springs for drinking, and for baths; he uses rivers for irrigating the fields, and assigning boundaries to countries; he uses the earth for receiving a variety of fruits, the hills for planting vineyards, the mountains for the use of trees and firewood,85    Lignorum.   the plains for crops of grain; he uses the sea not only for commerce, and for receiving supplies from distant countries, but also for abundance of every kind of fish. But if he makes use of these elements to which he is nearest, there is no doubt that he uses the heaven also, since the offices even of heavenly things are regulated for the fertility of the earth from which we live. The sun, with its ceaseless courses and unequal intervals,86    Spatiis. The word properly refers to a racecourse.   completes its annual circles, and either at his rising draws forth the day for labour, or at his setting brings on the night for repose; and at one time by his departure farther towards the south, at another time by his approach nearer towards the north, he causes the vicissitudes of winter and summer, so that both by the moistures and frosts of winter the earth becomes enriched for fruitfulness, and by the heats of summer either the produce of grass87    Herbidæ fruges.   is hardened by maturity, or that which is in moist places, being seethed and heated, becomes ripened. The moon also, which governs the time of night, regulates her monthly courses by the alternate loss and recovery of light,88    Amissi ac recepti luminis vicibus.   and by the brightness of her shining illumines the nights obscure with gloomy darkness, so that journeys in the summer heat, and expeditions, and works, may be performed without labour and inconvenience; since  

The other heavenly bodies also, either at their rising or setting, supply favourable times90    Opportunitates temporum.   by their fixed positions.91    Certis stationibus. Others read “sationibus,” for certain kinds of sowing; but “statio” is applied to the stars by Seneca and Pliny.   Moreover, they also afford guidance to ships, that they may not wander through the boundless deep with uncertain course, since the pilot duly observing them arrives at the harbour of the shore at which he aims.92    Designati.   Clouds are attracted by the breath of the winds, that the fields of sown grain may be watered with showers, that the vines may abound with produce, and the trees with fruits. And these things are exhibited by a succession of changes throughout the year, that nothing may at any time be wanting by which the life of men is sustained. But93    An objection is here met and answered.   (it is said) the same earth nourishes the other living creatures, and by the produce of the same even the dumb animals are fed. Has not God laboured also for the sake of the dumb animals? By no means; because they are void of reason. On the contrary, we understand that even these themselves in the same manner were made by God for the use of man, partly for food, partly for clothing, partly to assist him in his work; so that it is manifest that the divine providence wished to furnish and adorn the life of men with an abundance of objects and resources, and on this account He both filled the air with birds, and the sea with fishes, and the earth with quadrupeds. But the Academics, arguing against the Stoics, are accustomed to ask why, if God made all things for the sake of men, many things are found even opposed, and hostile, and injurious to us, as well in the sea as on the land. And the Stoics, without any regard to the truth, most foolishly repelled this. For they say that there are many things among natural productions,94    Gignentium.   and reckoned among animals, the utility of which hitherto95    Adhuc, omitted in many manuscripts.   escapes notice, but that this is discovered in process of the times, as necessity and use have already discovered many things which were unknown in former ages. What utility, then, can be discovered in mice, in beetles, in serpents, which are troublesome and pernicious to man? Is it that some medicine lies concealed in them? If there is any, it will at some time be found out, namely, as a remedy against evils, whereas they complain that it is altogether evil. They say that the viper, when burnt and reduced to ashes, is a remedy for the bite of the same beast. How much better had it been that it should not exist at all, than that a remedy should be required against it drawn from itself?  

They might then have answered with more conciseness and truth after this manner. When God had formed man as it were His own image, that which was the completion of His workmanship, He breathed wisdom into him alone, so that he might bring all things into subjection to his own authority and government, and make use of all the advantages of the world. And yet He set before him both good and evil things, inasmuch as He gave to him wisdom, the whole nature of which is employed in discerning things evil and good: for no one can choose better things, and know what is good, unless he at the same time knows to reject and avoid the things which are evil.96    [I have heretofore noted the elements of a theodicy to be found in Lactantius.]   They are both mutually connected with each other, so that, the one being taken away, the other must also be taken away. Therefore, good and evil things being set before it, then at length wisdom discharges its office, and desires the good for usefulness, but rejects the evil for safety. Therefore, as innumerable good things have been given which it might enjoy, so also have evils, against which it might guard. For if there is no evil, no danger—nothing, in short, which can injure man—all the material of wisdom is taken away, and will be unnecessary for man. For if only good things are placed in sight, what need is there of reflection, of understanding, of knowledge, of reason? since, wherever he shall extend his hand, that is befitting and adapted to nature; so that if any one should wish to place a most exquisite dinner before infants, who as yet have no taste, it is plain that each will desire that to which either impulse, or hunger, or even accident, shall attract them; and whatever they shall take, it will be useful and salutary to them. What injury will it therefore be for them always to remain as they are, and always to be infants and unacquainted with affairs? But if you add a mixture either of bitter things, or things useless, or even poisonous, they are plainly deceived through their ignorance of good and evil, unless wisdom is added to them, by which they may have the rejection of evil things and the choice of good things.  

You see, therefore, that we have greater need of wisdom on account of evils; and unless these things had been proposed to us, we should not be a rational animal. But if this account is true, which the Stoics were in no manner able to see, that argument also of Epicurus is done away. God, he says, either wishes to take away evils, and is unable; or He is able, and is unwilling; or He is neither willing nor able, or He is both willing and able. If He is willing and is unable, He is feeble, which is not in accordance with the character of God; if He is able and unwilling, He is envious, which is equally at variance with God; if He is neither willing nor able, He is both envious and feeble, and therefore not God; if He is both willing and able, which alone is suitable to God, from what source then are evils? or why does He not remove them? I know that many of the philosophers, who defend providence, are accustomed to be disturbed by this argument, and are almost driven against their will to admit that God takes no interest in anything, which Epicurus especially aims at; but having examined the matter, we easily do away with this formidable argument. For God is able to do whatever He wishes, and there is no weakness or envy in God. He is able, therefore, to take away evils; but He does not wish to do so, and yet He is not on that account envious. For on this account He does not take them away, because He at the same time gives wisdom, as I have shown; and there is more of goodness and pleasure in wisdom than of annoyance in evils. For wisdom causes us even to know God, and by that knowledge to attain to immortality, which is the chief good. Therefore, unless we first know evil, we shall be unable to know good. But Epicurus did not see this, nor did any other, that if evils are taken away, wisdom is in like manner taken away; and that no traces of virtue remain in man, the nature of which consists in enduring and overcoming the bitterness of evils. And thus, for the sake of a slight gain97    Propter exiguum compendium sublatorum malorum.   in the taking away of evils, we should be deprived of a good, which is very great, and true, and peculiar to us. It is plain, therefore, that all things are proposed for the sake of man, as well evils as also goods.  

CAPUT XIII De mundi et temporum commodo et usu.

Si consideret aliquis universam mundi administrationem, intelliget profecto, quam vera sit sententia Stoicorum, qui aiunt nostra causa mundum esse constructum. Omnia enim, quibus constat, quaeque generat ex se mundus, ad utilitatem hominis 0115B accommodata sunt. Homo utitur igni ad usum calefaciendi et luminis, et molliendorum ciborum, ferrique fabricandi: utitur fontibus ad potum et ad lavacra; fluminibus ad agros irrigandos terminandasque regiones: utitur terra ad percipiendam frugum varietatem; collibus ad conserenda vineta; montibus ad usum arborum atque lignorum; planis ad segetem; utitur 0116A mari, non solum ad commercia et copias ex longinquis regionibus ferendas, verum etiam ad ubertatem omnis generis piscium. Quod si his elementis utitur, quibus est proximus, non est dubium, quin et coelo, quoniam et coelestium rerum officia ad fertilitatem terrae, ex qua vivimus, temperata sunt. Sol irrequietis cursibus et spatiis inaequalibus orbes annuos conficit, et aut oriens diem promit ad laborem, aut occidens noctem superducit ad requiem: et tum abscessu longius ad meridiem, tum accessu propius ad septentrionem, hyemis et aestatis vicissitudines facit, ut et hybernis humoribus ac pruinis in ubertatem terra pinguescat, et aestivis caloribus, vel herbidae fruges maturitate durentur, vel quae sunt in humidis, incocta et fervefacta mitescant. 0116B Luna quoque nocturni temporis gubernatrix, et amissi ac recepti luminis vicibus menstrua spatia moderatur, et caecas tenebris horrentibus noctes fulgore suae claritatis illustrat; ut aestiva itinera, et expeditiones, et opera sine labore ac molestia confici possint. Siquidem: Nocte leves stipulae melius, nocte arida prata Tondentur.

0117A Astra etiam caetera, vel ortu, vel occasu suo, certis stationibus opportunitates temporum subministrant. Sed et navigiis, quominus errabundo cursu per immensum vagentur, regimen praebent, cum ea rite gubernator observans, ad portum destinati littoris pervehatur. Ventorum spiritu attrahuntur nubes, ut sata imbribus irrigentur, ut vites foetibus, arbusta pomis exuberent. Et haec per orbem vicibus exhibentur, ne desit aliquando, quo vita hominum sustineatur. At enim caeteras animantes eadem terra nutrit, et ejusdem foetu etiam muta pascuntur. Num etiam mutorum causa Deus laboravit? Minime, quia sunt rationis expertia. Sed intelligimus, et ipsa eodem modo in usum hominis a Deo facta, partim ad cibos, partim ad vestitum, partim ad operis 0117B auxilia; ut clarum sit, divinam providentiam rerum 0118A et copiarum abundantia hominum vitam instruere atque ornare voluisse, ob eamque causam, et aerem volucribus, et mare piscibus, et terram quadrupedibus implevit. Sed Academici contra Stoicos disserentes solent quaerere, cur, si Deus omnia hominum causa fecerit, etiam multa contraria, et inimica, et pestifera nobis reperiantur, tam in mari, quam in terra. Quod Stoici veritatem non respicientes ineptissime repulerunt. Aiunt enim, multa esse in gignentibus, et in numero animalium, quorum adhuc lateat utilitas: sed eam processu temporum inveniri; sicut jam plura prioribus saeculis incognita necessitas et usus invenerit. Quae tandem utilitas potest in muribus, in blattis, in serpentibus reperiri, quae homini molesta et perniciosa sunt? An medicina in 0118B his aliqua latet? Quae si est, invenietur aliquando, 0119A nempe adversus mala, cum id illi querantur esse omnino malum. Viperam ferunt exustam in cineremque dilapsam, mederi ejusdem bestiae morsui. Quanto melius fuerat eam prorsus non esse, quam remedium contra se ab ea ipsa desiderari?

Brevius igitur, ac verius respondere potuerunt in hunc modum. Deus cum formasset hominem veluti simulacrum suum, quod erat divini opificii summum, inspiravit ei sapientiam soli, ut omnia imperio ac ditioni suae subjugaret omnibusque mundi commodis uteretur. Proposuit tamen ei et bona et mala; quia sapientiam dedit; cujus omnis ratio in discernendis malis ac bonis sita est. Non potest enim quisquam eligere meliora et scire quid bonum sit, nisi sciat simul rejicere ac vitare quae mala sunt. Invicem sibi alterutra connexa sunt; ut sublato alterutro, utrumque 0119B tolli sit necesse. Propositis igitur bonis malisque, tum demum opus suum peragit sapientia; et quidem bonum appetit ad utilitatem, malum rejicit ad salutem. Ergo sicut bona innumerabilia data sunt homini, quibus frui posset; sic etiam mala, quae caveret. 0120A Nam si malum nullum sit, nullum periculum, nihil denique, quod loedere hominem possit, tollitur omnis materia sapientiae, nec erit homini necessaria. Positis enim tantummodo in conspectu bonis, quid opus est cogitatione, intellectu, scientia, ratione? cum quocumque porrexerit manum, id naturae aptum et accommodatum sit: ut si quis velit apparatissimam coenam infantibus, qui nondum sapiant, apponere, utique id appetent singuli, quo unumquemque aut impetus, aut fames, aut etiam casus attraxerit, et quidquid sumpserint, id illis erit vitale ac salubre. Quid igitur nocebit, eos sicuti sunt, permanere et semper infantes ac nescios esse rerum? Si autem admisceas vel amara, vel inutilia, vel etiam venenata, decipiuntur utique per ignorantiam boni ac mali, nisi accedat his sapientia, per quam habeant malorum 0120B rejectionem bonorumque delectum.

Vides ergo, magis propter mala opus nobis esse sapientia: quae nisi fuissent proposita, rationale animal non essemus. Quod si haec ratio vera est, quam 0121A stoici nullo modo videre potuerunt, dissolvitur etiam argumentum illud Epicuri. Deus, inquit, aut vult tollere mala et non potest; aut potest et non vult; aut neque vult, neque potest; aut et vult et potest. Si vult et non potest, imbecillis est; quod in Deum non cadit. Si potest et non vult, invidus; quod aeque alienum a Deo. Si neque vult, neque potest, et invidus et imbecillis est; ideoque neque Deus. Si vult et potest, quod solum Deo convenit, unde ergo sunt mala? aut cur illa non tollit? Scio plerosque philosophorum, qui providentiam defendunt, hoc argumento perturbari solere et invitos pene adigi, ut Deum nihil curare fateantur, quod maxime quaerit Epicurus. Sed nos ratione perspecta, formidolosum hoc argumentum facile dissolvimus. Deus enim potest quidquid 0121B velit, et imbecillitas, vel invidia in Deo nulla est; potest igitur mala tollere: sed non vult; nec ideo tamen invidus est. Idcirco enim non tollit, quia sapientiam (sicut edocui) simul tribuit, et plus est boni ac jucunditatis in sapientia, quam in malis molestiae. Sapientia enim facit, ut etiam Deum cognoscamus et per eam cognitionem immortalitatem assequamur; quod est summum bonum. Itaque nisi prius malum agnoverimus, nec bonum poterimus agnoscere. Sed hoc non vidit Epicurus, nec alius quisquam; si tollantur mala, tolli pariter sapientiam, nec ulla in homine virtutis remanere vestigia, cujus ratio in sustinenda et superanda malorum acerbitate consistit. Itaque propter exiguum compendium sublatorum malorum maximo et vero et proprio nobis bono careremus. 0121C Constat igitur omnia propter hominem proposita, tam mala, quam etiam bona.