a buzzing which is conveyed back to the sense of hearing. Others say that the sound occurring in the ears after the blockage is of the external air that has been trapped together and entered the ears. In terms of magnitudes, we call sharp that which can pierce, blunt that which can push. And we call a sharp sound that which reaches the sense of hearing quickly and persists, a deep sound that which is analogous to the blunt, reaches it slowly, and is quickly sent away. 56 Voice is the sound of an ensouled being, produced through the vocal organs with imagination. Three things are considered in it: rhythm, harmony, expression. Rhythm has the long and the short, from which the ancients called things that take a longer time long, and things that take a shorter time short, the composition of which makes for eurhythmy; while harmony has to do with the symmetry of the sharp and the deep, and expression the formation of syllables. We say that rhythm is a genus, and meter is a species. And rhythm is observed in those who beat with hands and feet according to the quick and slow raising and setting down of the feet, whence also the meters of poets were called feet. Whence rhythm in other things is characterized by the slow and the quick, but in speech by the long and the short. No insect or bloodless animal breathes. But not all amphibians make a sound, nor do the hard-shelled or the soft-shelled creatures. Near the Achelous river, fish seem to make a sound. But it is not so, but because, swimming near the surface of the water, being large and taking in much water in their gills, then contracting the gills they expel the water, and this being agitated takes in air which, being forced out by the impact, makes a sound. Cicadas, having a certain membrane under the chest on the surface and striking this with their wings and forcing out the trapped air, make a sound. Flies, having rough wings, strike the air and make a sound, but not when they are still. And parrot wrasses seem to make a sound, because receiving water with their mouths they push it out with a whizzing noise and produce a sound, but not, however, in the deep. The voice is produced from the inhaled air being forced out by the contraction of the thorax according to the psychic power existing in it, and striking the windpipe and the air trapped in it, which, unbroken by the sudden blow, rebounds and continually strikes the adjacent air all the way to the organ of hearing. For the gaping part of the mouth up to the root 57 of the tongue is the pharynx; and from there two vessels extend, one to the thorax which is called the artery, and the other one, next to the tendon, which is called the esophagus. The passage of the breath occurs through the windpipe, both for inhalation and exhalation, which, being breathed out in the said manner, makes a sound, which is called voice when it occurs with some significant imagination. The voice has this end: to signify some psychic disposition and desire. Therefore the sounds of irrational animals are also voices. For a dog barks whenever it has an image of a stranger, but when of someone familiar, it fawns. Irrational animals do not have well-proportioned, but having relaxed and parted lips, because they do not need them for the service of speech. But as many as have similar ones, these imitate human speech, like jays and parrots. The tongue contributes to two things, to taste and speech. The material cause of the voice is the air, the efficient cause is nature, the organic cause is the windpipe, the final cause is speech. Pharynx, spoken of in the feminine, signifies the gaping space after the root of the tongue; in the masculine, the larynx, which is the end of the windpipe and is contained by the three cartilages, the arytenoid, the thyroid and the anonymous one, which by contracting and expanding by means of the muscles there, regulate the voice. The artery cools the internal heat. the

βόμβον ὃς διαπορθμεύεται πάλιν ἐπὶ τὴν αἴσθησιν. ἄλλοι λέγουσιν ὡς ὁ γινόμενος μετὰ τὴν ἔμφραξιν τοῖς ὠσὶ ψόφος τοῦ ἔξωθέν ἐστιν ἀέρος συναπειλημμένος εἰσερχόμενος τοῖς ὠσίν. Ὀξὺ λέγομεν ἐν τοῖς μεγέθεσι τὸ κεντεῖν δυνάμενον, ἀμβλὺ τὸ ὠθεῖν. καὶ ὀξὺν ψόφον λέγομεν τὸν ταχέως ἐπὶ τὴν αἴσθησιν παραγενόμενον καὶ ἐπιμένοντα, βαρὺ τὸν ἀνάλογον τῷ ἀμβλεῖ καὶ βραδέως παραγενόμενον καὶ ταχέως ἀποπεμπόμενον. 56 Φωνή ἐστιν ἐμψύχου ψόφος διὰ τῶν φωνητικῶν γινόμενος ὀργάνων μετὰ φαντασίας. τρία δὲ ταύτῃ θεωρεῖται, ῥυθμός, ἁρμονία, [λέ]ξις. ὁ ῥυθμὸς ἔχει τὸ μακρὸν καὶ τὸ βραχύ, ἐξ οὗ [οἱ παλαιοὶ μακρὰ ὠνόμασαν τὰ ἐν] πλείονι χρόνῳ, βρα[χέα] τὰ ἐν ἐλάττονι, ὧν ἡ σύνθεσις τὴν εὐρυθμίαν ποιεῖ, ἡ δὲ ἁρμονία [περὶ τὴν τοῦ ὀξέος καὶ βαρέος συμμε]τρίαν ἔχει, ἡ δὲ λέξις τὴν διατύπωσιν τῶν συλλαβῶν. [φαμὲν ὅτι ὁ ῥυθμὸς] γένος ἐστί, τὸ δὲ μέτρον εἶδος. θεωρεῖται δὲ ὁ ῥυθμὸς ἐπὶ τῶν κροτούντων χερσὶ καὶ ποσὶ κατὰ τὴν ταχεῖαν καὶ βραδ[εῖαν τῶν ποδῶν] ἄρσιν καὶ θέσιν, ὅθεν καὶ τὰ μέτρα παρὰ ποιηταῖς πόδες ἐκλήθησαν. ὅθεν ὁ μὲν ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων ῥυθμὸς κατὰ τ[ὸ βραδὺ καὶ τὸ ταχὺ] χαρακτηρίζεται, ὁ δὲ ἐπὶ τοῦ λόγου κατὰ τὸ μακρὸν καὶ βραχύ. Οὐδὲν ἔντομον ἢ ἄναιμον ἀναπνεῖ. [ἀλλ' οὐδὲ πάντα] τὰ ἀμφίβια φωνοῦσιν ἢ τὰ ὀστρακόδερμα ἢ τὰ μαλακόστρακα. Περὶ τὸν Ἀχελῷον ποταμὸν ἰχθύες φωνεῖν [δοκοῦ]σιν. οὐκ ἔστι δέ, ἀλλ' ὅτι νηχόμενοι περὶ τοῦ ὕδατος ἐπιφάνειαν μεγάλοι ὄντες καὶ πολὺ ὕδωρ ἐν τοῖς βραγχίοις [ἐναπολαμβάνοντες], εἶτα συστέλλοντες τὰ βράγχια ἐκπέμπουσι τὸ ὕδωρ, καὶ τοῦτο ταραττόμενον ἐναπολαμβάνει ἀέρα ὃς ἐκθλιβόμενος τῇ πληγῇ ἠχεῖ. Οἱ τέττιγες ὑμένα τινὰ ἔχοντες ὑπὸ τὸ στῆθος κατὰ τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν καὶ τοῦτον τύπτοντες ταῖς πτέρυξι καὶ ἐκθλίβοντες τὸν ἐναπειλημμένον ἀέρα ψοφοῦσιν. αἱ μυῖαι τραχεῖα ἔχουσαι τὰ πτερὰ πλήττουσι τὸν ἀέρα καὶ ἠχοῦσι, σταθεῖσαι δὲ οὔ. καὶ οἱ σκάροι φωνεῖν δοκοῦσιν, ὅτι τῷ στόματι ὕδωρ δεχόμενοι ἐξωθοῦσιν αὐτὸ μετὰ ῥοίζων καὶ ἦχον ἀποτελοῦσιν, οὐ μὴν δὲ καὶ ἐν τῷ βάθει. Ἡ φωνὴ γίνεται τοῦ εἰσπνευσθέντος ἀέρος ἐκθλιβομένου τῇ συστολῇ τοῦ θώρακος κατὰ τὴν ἐνυπάρχουσαν αὐτῷ ψυχικὴν δύναμιν καὶ προσπίπτοντος τῇ τραχείᾳ ἀρτηρίᾳ καὶ τῷ ἐναπειλημμένῳ ἐν αὐτῇ ἀέρι, ὃς τῇ ἀθρόᾳ πληγῇ ἄθρυπτος ἀποπαλλόμενος ἀεὶ τύπτει τὸν προσεχῆ ἀέρα ἕως τῆς ἀκοῆς. ἔστι γὰρ τὸ μὲν ἀχανὲς τοῦ στόματος τὸ μέχρι τῆς ῥίζης 57 τῆς γλώττης φάρυγξ· ἐκεῖθεν δὲ δύο ἀγγεῖα φέρονται, τὸ μὲν ἐπὶ τὸν θώρακα καὶ καλεῖται ἀρτηρία, τὸ δὲ ἕτερον τὸ πρὸς τῷ τένοντι καὶ καλεῖται οἰσοφάγος. γίνεται δὲ διὰ τῆς τραχείας ἡ πάροδος τοῦ πνεύματος, ἥ τε κατὰ τὴν εἰσπομπὴν καὶ τὴν ἐκπομπήν, ὅπερ τῷ εἰρημένῳ τρόπῳ ἐκπνεόμενον ποιεῖ ψόφον, ὃς καλεῖται φωνὴ ὅταν μετά τινος σημαντικῆς φαντασίας γένηται. Ἡ φωνὴ τοῦτο ἔχει τέλος τὸ σημᾶναί τινα ψυχικὴν διάθεσιν καὶ ὄρεξιν. διὸ καὶ οἱ τῶν ἀλόγων ψόφοι φωναί. καὶ γὰρ καὶ ὁ κύων ὁπηνίκα φαντασίαν ἔχει τοῦ ἀλλοτρίου ὑλακτεῖ, ὅταν δὲ τοῦ οἰκείου σαίνει. Τὰ ἄλογα ζῷα οὐ σύμμετρα, ἀλλ' ἀνειμένα καὶ σεσηρότα τὰ χείλη <ἔχουσιν>, ὅτι οὐ δέονται τούτων εἰς ὑπηρεσίαν διαλέκτου. ὅσα δὲ παραπλήσια ἔχουσι, ταῦτα ἀνθρώποις μιμοῦνται διάλεκτον, ὡς κίτται καὶ ψιττακοί. Ἡ γλῶττα πρὸς δύο συμβάλλεται, πρὸς γεῦσιν καὶ διάλεκτον. Ὑλικὸν αἴτιον τῆς φωνῆς ὁ ἀήρ, ποιητικὸν ἡ φύσις, ὀργανικὸν ἡ τραχεῖα ἀρτηρία, τελικὸν ἡ διάλεκτος. Φάρυγξ θηλυκῶς λεγόμενον σημαίνει τὴν ἀχάνειαν τὴν μετὰ τὴν τῆς γλώττης ῥίζαν, ἀρρενικῶς τὸν λάρυγγα, ὅς ἐστιν ἔσχατον τῆς τραχείας ἀρτηρίας καὶ ὑπὸ τῶν τριῶν χόνδρων περιέχεται, ἀρυταινοειδοῦς, θυροειδοῦς καὶ τοῦ ἀνωνύμου, οἳ συστελλόμενοι καὶ διαστελλόμενοι διὰ τῶν ἐκεῖ μυῶν τὴν φωνὴν ῥυθμίζουσιν. Ἡ ἀρτηρία καταψύχει τὸ ἐντὸς θερμόν. οἱ