For instance, fish, not having this, are cooled through their gills. Those that have a windpipe also have a lung. Fish have neither these nor a heart. The tasteless is fourfold: either that which can be flavored, as water, being without quality, or that which is subject to the other senses, like a sound, or that which has little taste, like watery broths, or things of bad taste, like poisons. And in the case of the other senses, these four meanings are distinguished. 58 The principles of the tastable are the drinkable as perfecting and the undrinkable as destructive of taste through a bad flavor. The moist, as moist, is tangible, but as of a certain kind, is tastable. The tongue is moistened by other humors, but is dried by salted things and the like, as such things draw out its moisture. Those who have a smooth or dry or wet tongue do not perceive tastable things, because the moisture in it, being flavorful, this becomes the first touch of the tongue, not allowing the perception of things from without. Likewise, he who has an excessively dry tongue perceives less; for the sense-organ must be affected somewhat by the tastable thing, which is moist, but the excessively dry is less affected by the moist, just as dried hides are less affected by moisture. Just as with colors, some are simple, like white and black, and others are composite, and nearer to white is yellow, and to black is dark blue, and those in between, gray, red, so also with flavors, the simple are sweet and bitter, and the others are mixed, nearer to sweetening is the rich, the salty to the bitter, and the others in between. It should be known that they are not intermediate and mixed, but the reverse. They are called intermediate as partaking of neither of the extremes. Salts are from bitter and sweet, the pungent is harsh and sharp. Aristotle says there are eight kinds of flavors: sweet and bitter are the extremes, near to sweet is the rich and to bitter is the salty, in the middle are astringent, harsh, pungent, sharp. Galen says the extremes are pungent and sharp, having regard to the tangible qualities; for pungent is extreme in heat, sharp is extreme in cold. But he, as a philosopher, regarded the tastable things. Plato says there are seven flavors, because something with sweetness makes it sweet, but without this, it is rich, and he calls sharp and pungent extremes, near-extremes to sharp is astringent, to pungent is bitter, near-intermediate to bitter is salty, to astringent is harsh, and in the middle is sweet. He assigns, therefore, sharp to Hermes, pungent to Ares, bitter to the Moon, sweet to the Sun, salty to Aphrodite, harsh to Zeus, astringent to Kronos. Every sense is concerned with one opposition, but touch is concerned with several which are not subordinate to one another: hot, cold, dry, moist, heavy, light, 59 and so on; it is not [therefore] one sense. Further, every single sense is concerned with one genus, but touch is not concerned with one named or unnamed genus that is comprehensive of its proper sensibles. If we speak of a white and black voice, we speak by analogy; for white and black belong to sight. And if large and small are spoken of in other cases, they belong principally to hearing, and <similarly> in the other cases. Further, in the case of tangible things the oppositions are entirely separate, but in the other senses they perhaps have some community. Someone refutes such an opinion, saying, "If there is one sense-organ of touch, the flesh, then the sense is also one." It is not so; for the tongue is also one, but has different senses. The flesh is a sense-organ, since without delay, upon the touching of tangible things by the flesh, we perceive them. For if it were not so, some time would be needed for perception, just as hearing, having air as its medium, needs time for it to be affected, and in the other senses. Further, we have no other tangible sense-organ besides the flesh. Further, in the others there is some medium, but this is not the case unless the flesh itself is tangible. Oppositions: the flesh is not a sense-organ because it is without delay (for it has this by nature), because even when a foreign membrane is placed upon the flesh, we touch and perceive no less. that there are not more

γοῦν ἰχθύες ταύτην μὴ ἔχοντες διὰ τῶν βραγχίων καταψύχονται. τὰ ἔχοντα ἀρτηρίαν ἔχουσι καὶ πνεύμονα. οἱ ἰχθύες οὔτε ταῦτα ἔχει οὔτε καρδίαν. Τετραχῶς τὸ ἄγευστον· ἢ τὸ δυνάμενον χυμωθῆναι, ὡς τὸ ὕδωρ ἄποιον ὄν, ἢ τὸ ταῖς ἄλλαις αἰσθήσεσιν ὑποκείμενον, ὡς ψόφος, ἢ τὸ μικρὰν ἔχον γεῦσιν, ὡς τὰ ὑδαρὰ τῶν ῥοφημάτων, ἢ τὰ κακόγευστα, ὡς τὰ δηλητήρια. καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων δὲ αἰσθήσεων τὰ τέτταρα ταῦτα διαγινώσκεται σημαινόμενα. 58 Ἀρχαὶ τοῦ γευστοῦ τὸ ποτὸν ὡς τελειωτικὸν καὶ τὸ ἄποτον ὡς φθαρτικὸν τῆς γεύσεως διὰ μοχθηρὸν χυμόν. Τὸ ὑγρὸν ὡς μὲν ὑγρὸν ἁπτόν, ὡς δὲ τοιόνδε γευστόν. Ἡ γλῶττα ὑπὸ μὲν τῶν ἄλλων χυμῶν ὑγραίνεται, ὑπὸ δὲ τῶν τεταριχευμένων καὶ λοιπῶν ξηραίνεται, ἐξικμαζόντων τῶν τοιούτων τὴν ὑγρότητα αὐτῆς. Οἱ τὴν γλῶτταν λείαν ἢ ξηρὰν ἢ ὑγρὰν ἔχοντες οὐκ ἀντιλαμβάνονται τῶν γευστῶν, διότι ἡ ἐν αὐτῇ ὑγρότης ἔγχυμος οὖσα αὕτη γίνεται πρώτη γλώττης ἁφή, οὐκ ἐῶσα ἀντιλαμβάνεσθαι τῶν ἔξωθεν. ὡσαύτως καὶ ὁ ἔχων τὴν γλῶτταν ἄγαν ξηρὰν ἧττον αἰσθάνεται· δεῖ γὰρ παθεῖν τι τὸ αἰσθητήριον ὑπὸ τοῦ γευστοῦ ὑγροῦ ὄντος, τὸ δὲ ἄγαν ξηρὸν ἧττον πάσχει ὑπὸ τοῦ ὑγροῦ, ὡς αἱ ἐξηραμέναι τῶν βυρσῶν ἧττον πάσχουσιν ὑπὸ τοῦ ὑγροῦ. Ὥσπερ τῶν χρωμάτων τὰ μὲν ἁπλᾶ, ὡς λευκὸν καὶ μέλαν, τὰ δὲ σύνθετα, καὶ ἐγγυτέρω μὲν τοῦ λευκοῦ τὸ ξανθόν, τοῦ δὲ μέλανος τὸ κυανοῦν, τὰ δὲ μεταξύ, φαιόν, ἐρυθρόν, οὕτω καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν χυμῶν ἁπλᾶ γλυκὺ καὶ πικρόν, τὰ δ' ἄλλα μικτά, ἐγγύτερον τοῦ γλυκαίνειν τὸ λιπαρόν, τὸ ἁλμυρὸν τοῦ πικροῦ, τὰ δ' ἄλλα μεταξύ. ἰστέον δὲ ὡς οὐ τὰ μεταξὺ καὶ μικτά, ἀλλὰ ἀνάπαλιν. μεταξὺ δὲ λέγεται ὡς μηδετέρου τῶν ἄκρων μετέχοντα. οἱ ἅλες ἐκ πικροῦ καὶ γλυκέος, τὸ δριμὺ αὐστηρὸν καὶ ὀξύ. Ἀριστοτέλης ὀκτὼ εἴδη χυμῶν λέγει, γλυκὺ πικρὸν τὰ ἄκρα, ἐγγὺς τοῦ γλυκέος τὸ λιπαρὸν καὶ τοῦ πικροῦ τὸ ἁλμυρόν, ἐν μέσῳ στρυφνόν, αὐστηρόν, δριμύ, ὀξύ. ὁ Γαληνὸς ἄκρους λέγει δριμὺν καὶ ὀξύν, ὡς πρὸς τὰς ἁπτὰς ἰδὼν ποιότητας· ἄκρον γὰρ κατὰ θερμότητα τὸ δριμύ, κατὰ ψῦξιν τὸ ὀξύ. ὁ δ' ὡς φιλόσοφος πρὸς τὰ γευστὰ ἑώρακε. Πλάτων ἑπτὰ λέγει χυμούς, ὅτι τό γέ τι μετὰ ἡδύτητος γλυκὺ αὐτὸ [ποιεῖ, εἰ] δὲ χωρὶς τούτου, λιπαρόν, καὶ ἄκρα λέγει ὀξύ, δριμύ, πάρακρα πρὸς τὸ ὀξὺ τὸ στρυφνόν, πρὸς τὸ δριμὺ τὸ πικρόν, παράμ[εσα] πρὸς τὸ πικρὸν τὸ ἁλμυρόν, πρὸς τὸ στρυφνὸν τὸ αὐστηρόν, μέσον τὸ γλυκύ. ἀνατίθησιν οὖν τὸ ὀξὺ τῷ Ἑρμῇ, τὸ δριμὺ τῷ Ἄρει, πικρὸν Σελήνῃ, γλυκὺ Ἡλίῳ, ἁλμυρὸν Ἀφροδίτῃ, αὐστηρὸν ∆ιί,στρυφνὸν Κρόνῳ. Ἅπασα αἴσθησις περὶ μίαν ἐναντίωσιν καταγίνεται, ἡ δὲ ἁφὴ περὶ πλείους οὐχ ὑπαλλήλους, θερμόν, ψυχρόν, ξηρόν, ὑγρόν, βαρύ, κοῦφον 59 καὶ λοιπόν· οὐκ [ἄρα] αἴσθησις μία. ἔτι πᾶσα ἡ αἴσθησις μία περὶ ἓν γένος καταγίνεται, ἡ δὲ ἁφὴ οὐ περὶ ἓν ὠνομασμένον ἢ ἀνώνυμον τῶν οἰκείων αὐτῆς αἰσθητῶν περιεκτικόν. εἰ δὲ λέγομεν λευκὴν καὶ μέλαιναν φωνήν, κατὰ ἀναλογίαν λέγομεν· τὸ γὰρ λευκὸν καὶ μέλαν τῆς ὄψεως. καὶ τὸ μέγα καὶ μικρὸν εἰ καὶ ἐν ἄλλοις λέγεται, ἀλλὰ κυρίως τῆς ἀκουστικῆς, καὶ <ὁμοίως> ἐπὶ τῶν λοιπῶν. ἔτι ἐπὶ μὲν τῶν ἁπτῶν αἱ ἀντιθέσεις πάντῃ εἰσὶ κεχωρισμέναι, ἐν δὲ ταῖς ἄλλαις αἰσθήσεσιν ἴσως ἔχουσί τινα κοινωνίαν. Ἀναιρεῖ τις τὴν τοιαύτην δόξαν λέγων «εἰ ἓν αἰσθητήριον τῆς ἁφῆς, ἡ σάρξ, μία καὶ ἡ αἴσθησις». οὐκ ἔστιν· γλῶττα καὶ γὰρ μία, διαφόρους δὲ ἔχει αἰσθήσεις. ἡ σὰρξ αἰσθητήριόν ἐστιν, ἐπειδὴ ἀχρόνως ἅμα τῷ θιγεῖν τῇ σαρκὶ τῶν ἁπτῶν ἀντιλαμβανόμεθα αὐτῶν. εἰ γὰρ μὴ ἦν, ἔδει χρόνου τινὸς εἰς ἀντίληψιν, ὡς ἡ ἀκοὴ μέσον ἔχουσα τὸν ἀέρα δεῖ χρόνου, ὥστε παθεῖν αὐτόν, καὶ ἐν ταῖς λοιπαῖς. ἔτι ἄλλο αἰσθητήριον ἁπτικὸν παρὰ τὴν σάρκα οὐκ ἔχομεν. ἔτι ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις ἐστί τι μεταξύ, τοῦτο δὲ οὐκ ἔστιν εἰ μὴ ἡ σάρξ ἐστιν ἁπτική. ἀντιθέσεις· οὐ διὰ τὸ ἄχρονον αἰσθητήριόν ἐστιν ἡ σάρξ (φύσει γὰρ ἔχει τοῦτο), ὅτι καὶ ὑμένος ἐπιτεθέντος ἀλλοτρίου τῇ σαρκὶ οὐδὲν ἧττον ἁπτόμεθα καὶ αἰσθανόμεθα. ὅτι δὲ οὐ πλείονά εἰσι τὰ