Chapter 65

A premise is either a sentence denying something of something—which is a negation, as, for example, ‘Socrates does not laugh; or it is a sentence affirming something of something—which is affirmation, as ‘Socrates does laugh. A term is that into which the premise is resolved. A syllogism is a discourse in which, when two things have been laid down, or acknowledged as true, a third necessarily follows from the things laid down, and follows because of them. Thus, because of the premises laid down, the conclusion is made without any need of external support. A question is an examination directed to acceptance or rejection, that is to say, denial or approval, with respect to knowledge and speculation. An interrogation is an inquiry requiring a detailed, or full answer. Now, the inquiry differs from the interrogation in that the answer to it is short, that is to say, is given in a few words, whereas the answer to the interrogation is long and requires many words. That which is in the form of question and answer is said to be in dialogue form. An objection is that which from the very beginning upsets the assertion, while antiparastasis accepts the assertion as true but shows how it has no bearing on the matter at hand. A lemma is that which has been taken for granted for the purpose of proving something. A heresy is a persuasion, or opinion, held by several persons in agreement with each other but at variance with others. A common opinion is one acknowledged by everyone, as, for example, that the sun exists. A thesis is an unusual assumption made by some person who is distinguished for his wisdom, or, in other words, it is an extraordinary theory like that of Parmenides, who held that being is one, or that of Heraclitus, who held that all things are in motion.

That is common which is observed in several or is predicated of several. There are four ways in which a thing is said to be common: (1) either as that which is divisible into parts, as land is parcelled out; (2) or as that which is indivisible but is used in common, as one slave or one horse belonging to two masters and now carrying out the orders of one and now those of the other; (3) or as that which becomes private by reservation but reverts again to the common use, as a seat at the theatre or a place at the baths; (4) or, finally, as to that which is indivisible, yet proposed to the same common consideration, as the voice of the herald. It is in this last sense that the expression ‘having a common name is to be understood with respect to equivocal and univocal terms. That is of itself which does not belong accidentally to something, but primarily and essentially, as does the rational to man. And that is universal which signifies several individual things, as do the terms man, animal, and substance. That is accidental which may or may not exist in something, as sickness or health in a man. The term to make is used in connection with the creative arts, where the thing done endures—as in the case of carpentry and the like. Thus, after the process of making the couch remains. On the other hand, the term to do is used in cases where the work does not endure, that is to say, where the result of the work does not endure, as in the case of fluteplaying and dancing. Speculation is that which we call thinking, the practice of astro