Chapter 67 [!]

Philosophy is knowledge of things which are in so far as they are; that is to say, a knowledge of their nature. Philosophy is a knowledge of divine and human things. Philosophy is a study of death, both that which is deliberate and that which is natural. Philosophy is a becoming like God, in so far as this is possible for man. Now, it is in justice, sanctity, and goodness that we become like God. And justice is that which is distributive of equity; it is not wronging and not being wronged, not prejudicing a person, but rendering to each his due in accordance with his works. Sanctity, on the other hand, is that which is over and above justice; that is to say, it is the good, the patience of the one wronged, the forgiving of them that do wrong, and, more than that, the doing of good to them. Philosophy is the art of arts and the science of sciences, for, since through philosophy every art is discovered, it is the principle underlying every art. Philosophy is love of wisdom. But, the true wisdom is God. Therefore, the love of God—this is the true philosophy.

Philosophy is divided into speculative and practical. Speculative philosophy is divided into theology, mathematics, and natural science. Mathematics is divided into arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Practical philosophy is divided into ethics, domestic economy, and political economy. Speculative philosophy, then, is the consideration of things that are incorporeal and immaterial, that is to say, it is the consideration of God, who primarily and properly is incorporeal and immaterial. But it also treats of angels, demons, and souls, which themselves are termed immaterial in comparison with the body, although in comparison with that which is immaterial in the true sense, namely, the divine, they are material. This, then, is theology. But consider the nature of material things, that is to say, of animals and plants, of stones and the like, that is what natural science is. And to consider those things which stand midway between these, which are now considered in matter and now outside of matter, and which stand midway between the immaterial and the material, this is mathematics. Thus, the number in itself is immaterial, but it is also found in matter, in grain, say, or wine, for we do speak of ten measures of grain and of ten pints of wine. This is also true of the other branches of mathematics. Practical philosophy governs manners and teaches how one must live in society. If it regards the guidance of the individual man, it is called ethics; if of the whole household, it is called domestic economy; and if of the entire state, political economy.

[52] {Ὁρισμοὶ τῆς φιλοσοφίας εἰσὶν ἕξ.} αʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶ γνῶσις τῶν ὄντων, ᾗ ὄντα ἐστίν, ἤγουν τῆς φύσεως αὐτῶν. βʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶ γνῶσις θείων τε καὶ ἀνθρωπίνων πραγμάτων. γʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶ μελέτη θανάτου τοῦ τε προαιρετικοῦ τοῦ τε φυσικοῦ. δʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶν ὁμοίωσις θεῷ κατὰ τὸ δυνατὸν ἀνθρώπῳ: ὁμοιούμεθα δὲ θεῷ κατὰ τὸ δίκαιον καὶ ὅσιον καὶ ἀγαθόν. Δίκαιον μὲν οὖν ἐστι τὸ τοῦ ἴσου διανεμητικὸν ἤτοι μήτε ἀδικεῖν μήτε ἀδικεῖσθαι μήτε λαμβάνειν πρόσωπον ἐν κρίσει, ἀλλ' ἀποδιδόναι ἑκάστῳ κατὰ τὰ ἔργα αὐτοῦ, ὅσιον δὲ τὸ ὑπὲρ τὸ δίκαιον ἤτοι τὸ ἀγαθὸν τὸ ἀδικούμενον ἀνέχεσθαι καὶ συγχωρεῖν τοῖς ἀδικοῦσι καὶ μᾶλλον εὐεργετεῖν αὐτούς. εʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶ τέχνη τεχνῶν καὶ ἐπιστήμη ἐπιστημῶν: ἡ γὰρ φιλοσοφία ἀρχή ἐστι πάσης τέχνης, δι' αὐτῆς γὰρ πᾶσα τέχνη εὕρηται. Ϛʹ Φιλοσοφία ἐστὶ φιλία σοφίας: σοφία δὲ ἀληθὴς ὁ θεός ἐστιν. Ἡ οὖν ἀγάπη ἡ πρὸς τὸν θεόν, αὕτη ἐστὶν ἡ ἀληθὴς φιλοσοφία. Διαιρεῖται δὲ ἡ φιλοσοφία εἰς θεωρητικὸν καὶ πρακτικόν: τὸ θεωρητικὸν εἰς θεολογικόν, μαθηματικόν, φυσιολογικόν: τὸ μαθηματικὸν εἰς ἀριθμητικόν, μουσικόν, γεωμετρικόν, ἀστρονομικόν: τὸ δὲ πρακτικὸν εἰς ἠθικόν, οἰκονομικόν, πολιτικόν. Θεωρητικὸν μὲν οὖν ἐστι τὸ κατανοεῖν τά τε ἀσώματα καὶ ἄυλα ἤγουν περὶ θεοῦ, ὃ πρώτως καὶ κυρίως ἐστὶν ἀσώματον καὶ ἄυλον: ἔπειτα καὶ περὶ ἀγγέλων καὶ δαιμόνων καὶ ψυχῶν, ἃ καὶ αὐτὰ ὅσον πρὸς τὸ σῶμα ἄυλα λέγονται, εἰ καὶ πρὸς τὸ κυρίως ἄυλον ἤγουν τὸ θεῖον ὑλικά εἰσι. Τοῦτο τοίνυν ἐστὶ τὸ θεολογικόν. Θεωρεῖν δέ ἐστι καὶ τὴν τῶν ὑλικῶν φύσιν ἤγουν ζῴων καὶ φυτῶν καὶ λίθων καὶ τῶν τοιούτων, ὅπερ ἐστὶ τὸ φυσιολογικόν. Θεωρεῖν δὲ καὶ τὰ μέσα τούτων, ἃ ποτὲ μὲν ἐν ὕλῃ θεωροῦνται, ποτὲ δὲ ἐκτὸς ὕλης καὶ μέσα εἰσὶ τῶν ἀύλων καὶ ὑλικῶν, ὅπερ ἐστὶ τὸ μαθηματικόν. Ὁ γὰρ ἀριθμὸς ἄυλός ἐστι καθ' ἑαυτόν, θεωρεῖται δὲ καὶ ἐν ὕλῃ, σίτῳ τυχὸν ἢ οἴνῳ: λέγομεν γὰρ δέκα μοδίους σίτου καὶ δέκα ξέστας οἴνου: ὁμοίως καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν λοιπῶν εἰδῶν τοῦ μαθηματικοῦ. Τὸ δὲ πρακτικὸν ἦθος κοσμεῖ καὶ τὸ πῶς δεῖ πολιτεύεσθαι διδάσκει: καὶ εἰ μὲν ἕνα ἄνθρωπον παιδεύει, λέγεται ἠθικόν, εἰ δὲ οἶκον ὅλον, λέγεται οἰκονομικόν, εἰ δὲ πόλιν ὁλόκληρον, λέγεται πολιτικόν. Ἰστέον, ὡς τέσσαρές εἰσιν αἱ διαλεκτικαὶ μέθοδοι ἤγουν λογικαί: αʹ διαιρετική, ἥτις διαιρεῖ τὸ γένος εἰς εἴδη διὰ μέσων τῶν διαφορῶν: βʹ ὁριστική, ἥτις ἀπὸ τοῦ γένους καὶ τῶν διαφορῶν, ὧν διεῖλεν ἡ διαιρετική, ὁρίζει τὸ ὑποκείμενον: γʹ ἀναλυτικὴ ἡ τὸ συνθετικώτερον ἀναλύουσα εἰς τὰ ἁπλούστερα, τουτέστι τὸ σῶμα εἰς τοὺς χυμούς, τοὺς χυμοὺς εἰς τοὺς καρπούς, τοὺς καρποὺς εἰς τὰ τέσσαρα στοιχεῖα, τὰ στοιχεῖα εἰς ὕλην καὶ εἶδος: δʹ ἀποδεικτικὴ ἡ διὰ μέσου τινὸς δεικνύουσα τὸ προκείμενον: οἷον πρόκειταί μοι δεῖξαι, ὅτι ἡ ψυχὴ ἀθάνατός ἐστι: λαμβάνω τι μέσον, τὸ ἀεικίνητον, καὶ συλλογίζομαι οὕτως: Ἡ ψυχὴ ἀεικίνητός ἐστι: τὸ ἀεικίνητον ἀθάνατον: ἡ ψυχὴ ἄρα ἀθάνατος. Ἰστέον δέ, ὡς οἱ συλλογισμοὶ τῆς ἀποδεικτικῆς εἰσι. Δεῖ δὲ γινώσκειν, ὅτι ἡ ἀναλυτικὴ τρισσή τίς ἐστιν: ἔστι γὰρ φυσικὴ ὡς ἡ προλεχθεῖσα: ἔστι δὲ καὶ λογικὴ ἀνάλυσις, ὅταν τὸν προτεθέντα συλλογισμὸν ἀναλύσωμεν εἰς τὸ οἰκεῖον σχῆμα: ἔστι δὲ καὶ μαθηματική, ὅταν λάβωμεν τὸ ζητούμενον ὡς ὁμολογούμενον καὶ καταντήσωμεν εἴς τι ὁμολογούμενον, ὅθεν ἀγρεύεται τὸ προκείμενον. Οἷον ἔστω τὸ ζητούμενον: Εἰ ἀθάνατος ἡ ψυχή. Τοῦτο τὸ ζητούμενον λαμβάνω ὡς ὁμολογούμενον καὶ λέγω: Ἐπειδὴ ἀθάνατος ἡ ψυχή, εἰσὶν ἀμοιβαὶ τῶν φαύλων καὶ ἀγαθῶν πράξεων: εἰ δέ εἰσιν ἀμοιβαί, ἔστι τὸ δικαζόμενον καὶ δικάζον: εἰ δέ ἐστι τὸ δικαζόμενον καὶ δικάζον, ἔστι προνοητὴς καὶ πρόνοια. Κατηντήσαμεν τοίνυν εἰς τὴν πρόνοιαν, ἥτις παρὰ πᾶσιν ὁμολογεῖται. Ἔνθεν λοιπὸν κατὰ σύνθεσιν λέγω: Ἐπειδὴ ἔστι πρόνοια καὶ δικαστής, εἰσὶν ἀμοιβαί: ἐπειδὴ εἰσὶν ἀμοιβαί, ἔστι τὸ κρινόμενον: εἰ δὲ ἔστι τὸ κρινόμενον, ἀθάνατος ἄρα ἡ ψυχή.