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chance were mixed by necessity, that in this way and in accordance with these things it has generated the whole heaven and all things, as many as are in heaven, and animals again and all plants, with all the seasons coming from these things, not through mind, they say, nor through any 12.50.4 god nor through art, but, as we say, by nature and chance. And art, coming into being later from these things, mortal from mortals, has later generated certain pastimes that have no great share in truth, but certain images akin to themselves, such as painting generates and music and as many arts as are fellow-workers with these. And if any of the arts do generate anything of serious value, these are they which have shared their own power with nature, such as medicine and agriculture and gymnastics. And indeed, they say that politics has a small part that shares in nature, but a large part in art; thus also all legislation is not by nature, but by art, the positions of which are not true. 12.50.5 What do you mean? Gods, my good man, they say, exist first by art, not by nature, but by certain laws, and these are different in different places, according as each group agreed among themselves when making their laws. And indeed the noble things are one thing by nature, and another by law, and the just things do not exist at all by nature, but men are always disputing with one another and always changing these things; and whatever they change and whenever, these things are then authoritative, 12.50.6 coming into being by art and laws, but not by any nature. These, my friends, are all the teachings of wise men among young people, both laymen and poets, who assert that the most just thing is whatever one can win by force. Whence impieties befall young men, as if there are not gods such as the law commands one must believe in, and factions because they are drawn for these reasons to the right life according to nature, which is in truth to live ruling over others and not being a slave to others according to law. What an argument you have gone through, stranger, and how great a corruption of young men in public for cities and in private households.» 12.50.7 And after other things he says: «But come now, tell me again, Cleinias, you too; for you must be a partner in the arguments; for he who says these things is in danger of holding fire and water and earth and air to be the first of all things, and to call these things themselves "nature," and soul to be later from these. And it seems he is not in danger, but really means these things to us in his argument. Most certainly. 12.50.8 By Zeus, then, have we not found a sort of fountainhead of the foolish opinion of all men who have ever grappled with inquiries about nature? consider, examining every argument; for it is surely no small matter if those who engage in impious arguments should be seen to be leading off in a different way, not even using the arguments well, but erroneously. It seems to me, then, that these things are not so. You speak well; but how, then, try to say. It seems, then, that we must take up more unaccustomed arguments.» 12.50.9 And after a little he adds: «Soul, my friend, nearly all men are in danger of being ignorant of what sort of thing it happens to be and what power it has, both concerning its other aspects and especially its generation, that it is among the first things, having come into being before all bodies, and that it is the ruler, more than anything else, of their change and of all their rearrangement. And if these things are so, is it not of necessity that the things akin to soul would have come into being before the things belonging to body, since soul is older than body? It is necessary. 12.50.10 Opinion, then, and care and mind and art and law would be prior to hard and soft and heavy and light things; and indeed also the great and first works and actions would belong to art, being among the first things, while the things by nature and nature itself, which they incorrectly name, would be later than this and would be ruled by art and mind. How incorrectly? 12.50.11 By nature they wish to mean the generation concerning the first things. But if soul is shown to be first, not fire nor air, but soul having come into being among the first things, it would be said most correctly to be pre-eminently by nature. These things are so, if one can show that soul is older than body, but otherwise not at all. Most true.

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τύχην ἐξ ἀνάγκης συνεκεράσθη, ταύτη καὶ κατὰ ταῦτα οὕτως γεγεννηκέναι τόν τε οὐρανὸν ὅλον καὶ πάντα, ὁπόσα ἂν κατ' οὐρανόν, καὶ ζῷα αὖ καὶ φυτὰ ξύμπαντα, ὡρῶν πασῶν ἐκ τούτων γενομένων, οὐ διὰ νοῦν, φασίν, οὐδὲ διά τινα 12.50.4 θεὸν οὐδὲ διὰ τέχνην, ἀλλὰ ὃ λέγομεν, φύσει καὶ τύχῃ. τέχνην δὲ ὕστερον ἐκ τούτων ὑστέραν γενομένην, θνητὴν ἐκ θνητῶν, ὕστερα γεγεννηκέναι παιδιάς τινας ἀληθείας οὐ σφόδρα μετεχούσας, ἀλλ' εἴδωλ' ἄττα ξυγγενῆ ἑαυτῶν, οἷα γραφικὴ γεννᾷ καὶ μουσικὴ καὶ ὅσαι ταύταις εἰσὶ συνέριθοι τέχναι. αἱ δ' εἴ τι καὶ σπουδαῖον ἄρα γεννῶσι τῶν τεχνῶν, εἶναι ταύτας ὁπόσαι τῇ φύσει ἐκοίνωσαν τὴν αὑτῶν δύναμιν, οἷον αὖ ἰατρικὴ καὶ γεωργικὴ καὶ γυμναστική. καὶ δὴ καὶ τὴν πολιτικὴν σμικρόν τι μέρος εἶναί φασι κοινωνοῦν φύσει, τέχνῃ δὲ πολύ· οὕτω καὶ τὴν νομοθεσίαν πᾶσαν οὐ φύσει, τέχνῃ δέ, ἧς οὐκ ἀληθεῖς εἶναι τὰς θέσεις. 12.50.5 Πῶς λέγεις; Θεούς, ὦ μακάριε, πρῶτον εἶναί φασιν οὗτοι τέχνῃ, οὐ φύσει, ἀλλά τισι νόμοις, καὶ τούτους ἄλλους ἄλλῃ, ὅπη ἕκαστοι ἑαυτοῖς συνωμολόγησαν νομοθετούμενοι. καὶ δὴ καὶ τὰ καλὰ φύσει μὲν ἄλλα εἶναι, νόμῳ δὲ ἕτερα, τὰ δὲ δὴ δίκαια οὐδ' εἶναι τὸ παράπαν φύσει, ἀλλ' ἀμφισβητοῦντας διατελεῖν ἀλλήλοις καὶ μετατιθεμένους ἀεὶ ταῦτα· ἃ δ' ἂν μετάθωνται καὶ ὅταν, τότε κύρια ἕκα12.50.6 στα εἶναι, γιγνόμενα τέχνῃ καὶ νόμοις, ἀλλ' οὐ δή τινι φύσει. ταῦτ' ἐστίν, ὦ φίλοι, ἅπαντα ἀνδρῶν σοφῶν παρὰ νέοις ἀνθρώποις, ἰδιωτῶν τε καὶ ποιητῶν, φασκόντων εἶναι τὸ δικαιότατον, ὅ τί τις ἂν νικᾷ βιαζόμενος. ὅθεν ἀσέβειαί τε ἀνθρώποις ἐμπίπτουσι νέοις, ὡς οὐκ ὄντων θεῶν οἵους ὁ νόμος προστάττει διανοεῖσθαι δεῖν, στάσεις τε διὰ ταῦτα ἑλκόντων πρὸς τὸν κατὰ φύσιν ὀρθὸν βίον, ὅς ἐστι τῇ ἀληθείᾳ κρατοῦντα ζῆν τῶν ἄλλων καὶ μὴ δουλεύοντα ἑτέροισι κατὰ νόμον. Οἷον διελήλυθας, ὦ ξένε, λόγον καὶ ὅσην λώβην ἀνθρώπων νέων δημοσίᾳ πόλεσί τε καὶ ἰδίοις οἴκοις.» 12.50.7 Καὶ μεθ' ἕτερά φησιν· «Ἀλλά γε δὴ πάλιν λέγε μοι, Κλεινία, καὶ σύ· κοινωνὸν γὰρ δεῖ σε εἶναι τῶν λόγων· κινδυνεύει γὰρ ὁ λέγων ταῦτα πῦρ καὶ ὕδωρ καὶ γῆν καὶ ἀέρα πρῶτα τῶν πάντων ἡγεῖσθαι εἶναι καὶ τὴν φύσιν ὀνομάζειν ταῦτα αὐτά, ψυχὴν δ' ἐκ τούτων ὕστερον. ἔοικε δὲ οὐ κινδυνεύειν, ἀλλ' ὄντως σημαίνειν ταῦτα ἡμῖν τῷ λόγῳ. Πάνυ μὲν οὖν. 12.50.8 Ἆρ' οὖν πρὸς ∆ιὸς οἷον πηγήν τινα ἀνοήτου δόξης ἀνευρήκαμεν ἀνθρώπων ὁπόσοι πώποτε τῶν περὶ φύσεως ἐφήψαντο ζητημάτων; σκόπει πάντα λόγον ἐξετάζων· οὐ γὰρ δὴ σμικρόν γε τὸ διαφέρον, εἰ φανεῖεν οἱ λόγων ἁπτόμενοι ἀσεβῶν ἄλλως τε ἐξάρχοντες μηδὲ εὖ τοῖς λόγοις, ἀλλ' ἐξημαρτημένως χρώμενοι. δοκεῖ τοίνυν μοι οὐ ταῦτα οὕτως ἔχειν. Εὖ λέγεις· ἀλλ' ὅπη δή, πειρῶ φράζειν. Ἔοικε τοίνυν ἀηθεστέρων ἁπτέον λόγων.» 12.50.9 Καὶ μετὰ βραχέα ἐπιλέγει· «Ψυχήν, ὦ ἑταῖρε, ἠγνοηκέναι κινδυνεύουσι μὲν ὀλίγου ξύμπαντες οἷόν τε ὂν τυγχάνει καὶ δύναμιν ἣν ἔχει, τῶν τε ἄλλων αὐτῆς πέρι καὶ δὴ καὶ γενέσεως, ὡς ἐν πρώτοις ἐστὶ σωμάτων ἔμπροσθεν πάντων γενομένη καὶ μεταβολῆς τε αὐτῶν καὶ μετακοσμήσεως ἁπάσης ἄρχει παντὸς μᾶλλον. εἰ δ' ἔστι ταῦτα οὕτως, ἆρ' οὐκ ἐξ ἀνάγκης τὰ ψυχῆς συγγενῆ πρότερα ἂν εἴη γεγονότα τῶν σώματι προσηκόντων, οὔσης γε αὐτῆς πρεσβυτέρας ἢ σώματος; Ἀνάγκη. 12.50.10 ∆όξα δὴ καὶ ἐπιμέλεια καὶ νοῦς καὶ τέχνη καὶ νόμος σκληρῶν καὶ μαλακῶν καὶ βαρέων καὶ κούφων πρότερα ἂν εἴη· καὶ δὴ καὶ τὰ μεγάλα καὶ πρῶτα ἔργα καὶ πράξεις τέχνης ἂν γίγνοιτο, ὄντα ἐν πρώτοις, τὰ δὲ φύσει καὶ φύσις, ἣν οὐκ ὀρθῶς αὐτοὶ ἐπονομάζουσι, τούτου ὕστερα καὶ ἀρχόμενα ἂν ἐκ τέχνης εἴη καὶ νοῦ. Πῶς οὐκ ὀρθῶς; 12.50.11 Φύσιν βούλονται λέγειν γένεσιν τὴν περὶ τὰ πρῶτα. εἰ δὲ φανήσεται ψυχὴ πρῶτον, οὐ πῦρ οὐδὲ ἀήρ, ψυχὴ δ' ἐν πρώτοις γεγενημένη, σχεδὸν ὀρθότατα λέγοιτ' ἂν εἶναι διαφερόντως φύσει. ταῦτ' ἔσθ' οὕτως ἔχοντα, ἂν ψυχήν τις ἐπιδείξῃ πρεσβυτέραν οὖσαν σώματος, ἄλλως δὲ οὐδαμῶς. Ἀληθέστατα