ARTICLE XII

In the Twelfth Article We Ask: CAN FREE CHOICE IN THE STATE OF MORTAL SIN AVOID MORTAL SIN WITHOUT GRACE?

Difficulties:

It seems that it cannot, for

1. In the Epistle to the Romans (7:15) it is said: "For I do not that good which I will; but the evil which I hate, that I do." This is said in the person of the damned, as the Gloss says in commenting on this passage. Hence a man without grace cannot avoid sin.

2. Actual mortal sin is more serious than original sin. But a person in original sin, if he is an adult, cannot avoid sinning mortally without grace; for in that case he would avoid damnation to the pain of sense, which actual mortal sin merits. Since in the case of adults there is no mean between that damnation and the glory of eternal life, it would accordingly follow that he could obtain eternal life without grace. But that is the Pelagian heresy. Even less, then, can a person in the state of mortal sin avoid mortal sin unless he receives grace.

3. On the words of the Epistle to the Romans (7:20): "Now if I do that which I will not, . . ." the Gloss quotes the comment of Augustine: "This is a description of man living under the Law and prior to grace. For man is bound by his sins as long as he tries to live justly by his own strength without the help of liberating grace, which frees the free choice so that it trusts in its liberator and so does not sin against the Law." But to sin against the Law is to sin mortally. It therefore seems that a man without grace cannot avoid mortal sin.

4. Augustine says that evil has the same relation to the soul as crookedness has to the lower leg, and that the act of sin is like limping. Now limping cannot be avoided by one having a crooked leg unless the leg is first made straight. Neither can mortal sin be avoided, then, by one who is in sin unless he first be freed from sin by grace.

5. Gregory says: "A sin which is not wiped out by repentance soon by its weight pulls the person into another." But sin is wiped out only by grace. Without grace, then, a sinner cannot avoid sin.

6. According to Augustine fear and anger are passions and sins. But man cannot avoid passions by his free choice. Then neither can he refrain from sinning.

7. What is necessary cannot be avoided. But some sins are necessary, as is clear from the words of the Psalm (24:17): "Deliver me from my necessities." Consequently man cannot avoid sin by his free choice.

8. Augustine says: "When flesh lusts against the spirit there is some sin." But it is not within the power of free choice to have flesh not lust against the spirit. Hence the power of free choice does not extend to the avoidance of sin.

9. The possibility of dying is a consequence of the possibility of sinning, for in the state of innocence man could die only in the sense that he could sin. Then the necessity of dying also is a consequence of the necessity of sinning. But in the present state man cannot keep from dying. Then neither can he keep from sinning.

10. According to Augustine in the state of innocence man could remain upright because he had an uncontaminated nature free from all stain of sin. But that incontamination is not in a sinner destitute of grace. He consequently cannot stand up, but after sinning is under the necessity of falling.

11. To the victor a crown is due, as is evident from the Apocalypse (3:11). But if anyone avoids sin when he is tempted, he conquers sin and the devil, as appears from the Epistle of St. James (4:7): "Resist the devil, and he will fly from you." If, then, a person can avoid sin without grace, he will be able to merit a crown without grace. But that is heretical.

12. Augustine says: "When cupidity compels, the will cannot resist." But cupidity leads to sin. Hence the human will without grace cannot avoid sin.

13. One who has a habit necessarily acts according to the habit. But a person in sin has the habit of sin. It therefore seems that he cannot avoid sinning.

14. According to Augustine free choice is that by which we choose good with the assistance of grace and evil with its lack. It therefore seems that one who lacks grace always chooses evil by his free choice.

15. Whoever can avoid sin can conquer the world, for no one conquers the world in any other way than by ceasing to sin. But no one can conquer the world except by grace, because "this is the victory which overcometh the world, our faith," as is said in the first Epistle of St. John (5:4). Consequently a person without grace cannot avoid sin.

16. The commandment to love God is affirmative and accordingly so obliges to its observance as place and time demand, that if it is not observed one sins mortally. But the commandment of charity cannot be observed without grace, because "the charity of God is poured forth in our hearts, by the Holy Ghost, who is given to us," as is said in the Epistle to the Romans (5:5). Without grace, then, a man cannot help sinning mortally.

17. According to Augustine the precept of mercy to oneself is included in the precept of mercy to one's neighbor. But a person sins mortally unless he is merciful to his neighbor in a necessity involving bodily death. All the more, then, does he sin mortally unless he has mercy upon himself when he is in sin, by repenting of his sin. And so, unless his sin is wiped out by repentance, a man cannot avoid sinning.

18. The contempt of God is related to sin in the same way as the love of God is to virtue. But every virtuous man must necessarily love God. Then every sinner must contemn God and thus sin.

19. According to the Philosopher like acts come from like habits. If a man is in sin, then, it seems that he must necessarily produce like acts, that is, acts of sin.

20. Since form is the principle of operation, whatever lacks form lacks the operation proper to that form. But to turn away from evil is the work of justice. Then, since one who is in sin lacks justice, it seems that he cannot turn away from evil.

21. The Master says: "After sin and before the reparation of grace free choice is pressed and conquered by concupiscence and has a weakness for evil. But it does not have grace for good. It can accordingly sin even so as to merit damnation." And so without grace a person cannot avoid mortal sin.

22. Should it be answered that he is unable not to sin in the sense of not having sin, but he is able not to sin in the sense of not using sin--on the contrary, even the Pelagians conceded this, and yet their opinion is censured by Augustine, who says: "The Pelagians say that the grace of God which is given through faith in Jesus Christ, which is neither the law nor nature, exerts its influence only in the remission of sins, not in the avoidance of future sins or in overcoming resistance. But if this were true, in the Lord's Prayer after saying 'Forgive us our trespasses' we should surely not add 'and lead us not into temptation.' The former phrase we say in order that sins be forgiven, but the latter, that they be warded off or overcome. We should by no means ask this of our Father who is in heaven if we were able to bring it about by the effort of the human will."

It therefore seems that the supposed answer is invalid.

23. Augustine says: "The light of truth deservedly abandons the transgressor of the law, and when he is abandoned by it he becomes blind; and it is furthermore necessary for him to stumble and, falling, to be kicked about, and after he has been kicked about, not to rise." Hence the sinner who is destitute of grace must necessarily sin.

To the Contrary:

1'. Jerome says: "We say that man is always able to sin or not to sin, so that we always profess that we have free choice." To say that a man in the state of sin cannot avoid sin is therefore to deny free choice. But this is heretical.

2'. If there is a defect in an agent which has it in its power to use or not use that defect, it is not necessary for the agent to fail in its action. If a lower leg which is crooked, for instance, could avoid the use of that crookedness in walking, it could avoid limping. But free choice subject to sin can make use of sin or not, because making use of sin is an act of free choice, which is master of its own action. Consequently, however much it is in sin, it is able not to sin.

3'. In the Psalm (118:95) it is written: "The wicked have waited for me to destroy me"; and the Gloss comments: "That is, they have waited for my consent." A person is therefore not led to commit sin without consenting. But consent is in the power of free choice. A person is therefore able by his free choice not to sin.

4'. Because the devil is unable not to sin, he is said to have sinned irremediably. But man has sinned remediably, as is commonly said. He is therefore able not to sin.

5'. The passage from one extreme to the other is not made except by going through the mean. But before sin man has the power of not sinning. Therefore after sin he is not led immediately to the other extreme, so as to be unable not to sin.

6'. The free choice of a sinner can sin. But it sins only by choosing, since choosing is the act of free choice, just as sight operates only by seeing. But since choosing is the desire of what has been previously deliberated, as the Philosopher says, it follows deliberation or counsel, which is concerned only with the things which are within our power, as he also says. Therefore to avoid or to commit sin is in the power of a man in the state of sin.

7'. According to Augustine no one sins in doing something which he cannot avoid, because it would then be necessary. If, then, a person in the state of sin could not avoid sin, he would not sin in committing a sin. But that is absurd.

8'. Free choice is equally free from constraint before and after sinning. But the necessity of sinning seems to be one of constraint inasmuch as, even if we are unwilling, that necessity is in us. After sin a man therefore does not have the necessity of sinning.

9'. All necessity is either that of constraint or that of natural inclination. But the necessity of sinning is not one of natural inclination; for then our nature would be evil, since it would incline us to evil. Consequently, if there were any necessity for sinning in the sinner, he would be constrained to sin.

10'. What is necessary is not voluntary. If, then, it is necessary for one who is in sin to sin, sin is not voluntary. But that is false.

11'. If a sinner must necessarily sin, this necessity attaches to him only by reason of sin. He can, however, withdraw from sin; otherwise sinners would not be commanded: "Depart, depart, go ye out from thence, touch no unclean thing," as is written in Isaias (52:11).

REPLY:

Opposite heresies have arisen regarding this question. Some, judging of the nature of the human mind after the manner of corporeal natures, have been of the opinion that man does from necessity everything to which they saw there was an inclination of the human mind. For the human mind has two contrary inclinations. One, from the instinct of reason, is to good. Noting this, Jovinian said that man cannot sin. The other inclination is in the human mind from the lower powers, especially as corrupted by original sin. By this the mind is inclined to choose the things which are pleasurable to the carnal senses. Noting this inclination, the Manicheans said that man necessarily sins and cannot in any way avoid sin. Thus both, though by opposite paths, fell into the same inadmissible position, denying free choice; for man does not have free choice if he is driven with necessity to either good or evil. That it is inadmissible is proved by experience, by the doctrines of the philosophers, and by arguments from Scripture, as appears to some extent from what has been said above.

On the other hand there arose Pelagius, who, wishing to defend free choice, opposed divine grace and said that man is able to avoid sin without the grace of God. This error very evidently contradicts the teaching of the gospels, and has therefore been condemned by the Church.

Now the Catholic faith takes a middle course, so saving free choice as not to exclude the necessity of grace.

For the clarification of this point it should be noted that, since free choice is a power established under reason and over the executive and motive power, something is found to be outside the power of free choice for either of two reasons: (1) It exceeds the efficacy of the motive and executive power, which works at the command of free choice. For example, to fly does not fall within the free choice of a man, because it exceeds the power of man's motive faculty. (2) The act of reason does not extend to it. For since the act of free choice is choosing, which depends upon counsel, that is, the deliberation of reason, free choice cannot extend to anything that escapes the deliberation of reason. Such, for example, would be actions which occur without premeditation.

The avoidance or commission of sin does not exceed the power of free choice for the first reason, because, though the accomplishment of a sin by an external act is carried out by the execution of the motive power, nevertheless the sin is completed in the will by mere consent before the execution of the deed. Consequently free choice is not kept from a sin or its avoidance by the failure of the motive power, even though it is sometimes kept from its execution. This would be the case, for example, when someone wishes to kill or fornicate or steal and cannot.

A sin or its avoidance can exceed the power of free choice for the second reason, however, inasmuch as a particular sin occurs suddenly and more or less by surprise, thus escaping the election of free choice, even though by directing its attention or efforts to it free choice could commit the sin or avoid it.

Now something can happen in us more or less by surprise in two ways: (1) From a fit of passion. For the movement of anger or concupiscence sometimes anticipates the deliberation of reason. Tending to something illicit by reason of the corruption of our nature, this movement constitutes a venial sin. In the state of corrupt nature it is accordingly not within the power of free choice to avoid all sins of this sort, because they escape its act, although it can prevent any particular one of those movements if it makes the effort against it. But it is not possible for man continuously to make the contrary effort to avoid movements of this kind on account of the various occupations of the human mind and the rest required for it. This comes about from the fact that the lower powers are not wholly subject to reason as they were in the state of innocence. It was then easy for man to avoid each and every one of these sins by his free choice, because no movement could arise in the lower powers except at the dictate of reason. In his present state, however, man is not, commonly speaking, restored by grace to this harmonious condition; but we look forward to it in the state of glory. In this state of misery, then, even after reparation by grace man cannot avoid all venial sins. This is, however, in no respect prejudicial to the freedom of choice.

(2) Something happens in us more or less by surprise by reason of the inclination of habit; for, as the Philosopher says: "It is more indicative of a brave man to remain fearless and unperturbed in sudden terrors than in those seen coming." The less an action is from preparedness, the more it is from habit; for a person chooses things seen coming, that is, known ahead of time, by reason and thought even without a habit, but sudden things according to habit. Now this is not to be taken as meaning that an action according to the habit of a virtue can be altogether without deliberation, since a virtue is a habit of choice, but that one having the habit already has the end determined in his choice. Consequently, whenever anything agreeable to that end presents itself, it is immediately chosen unless the choice is blocked by a greater and more attentive deliberation.

A man who is in the state of mortal sin, however, habitually clings to sin. He may not always have the habit of a vice, because from one act of lust, for instance, the habit of lust is not formed; but the will of one sinning has abandoned the unchangeable good and clung to a changeable good as its end, and the force and bent of this clinging remains in it up to the time that it again clings to the unchangeable good as its end. As a consequence, when something to be done which is conformable to the previous choice presents itself to a man so disposed, he straightway goes out to it in a choice unless he holds himself in check by much deliberation. And yet by the fact that he chooses it straightway in this fashion he is not excused from mortal sin, which requires some deliberation, because that deliberation suffices for a mortal sin in which what is chosen is judged to be a mortal sin and against God.

Such a deliberation, however, does not suffice to restrain one who is in the state of mortal sin. For no one is held back from doing anything to which he is inclined except in so far as it is proposed to him as evil; but one who has already repudiated the unchangeable good for a changeable good no longer considers it an evil to be turned away from the unchangeable good, and mortal sin essentially consists in being so turned away. He is consequently not restrained from sinning by adverting that something is a mortal sin. What is further needed is to go ahead in the consideration until one arrives at something that one cannot fail to judge evil, such as unhappiness or something of the sort. The consequence is that, before as much deliberation as a man so disposed requires to avoid mortal sin, consent to a mortal sin is given.

Given the adherence of free choice to a mortal sin or to an illicit end, it is not in the power of free choice to avoid all mortal sins, though it can avoid any particular one if it resists. For, even though it has avoided this one or that by employing as much deliberation as is required, it is still unable to keep consent to a mortal sin from sometimes stealing up on a person before so much deliberation when he is not ready to deliberate, since it is impossible, because of the many cares with which the human mind is occupied, for a man always or for a long time to remain in such great watchfulness as is required for this. Furthermore, he is removed from this disposition only by grace, by which alone the human mind is made to adhere by charity to the unchangeable good as its end.

It is therefore clear from what we have said that we do not take away free choice, since we say that free choice can avoid or commit any sin taken singly; nor again do we take away the necessity of grace, since we say that man (even one having grace, as long as that grace has not been made perfect in the state of glory), because of the corruption of human nature called "fuel of sin," cannot avoid all venial sins though he can avoid each one. Since we say, moreover, that a man in the state of mortal sin and deprived of grace cannot avoid all mortal sins unless grace should come to his aid (though he can avoid each one singly) because of the habitual adherence of his will to an inordinate end (referred to by Augustine under the figure of the crookedness of a lower leg which brings on the necessity of limping)--in this way are verified the opinions of the doctors which appear quite different on this question.

Some of them say that without habitual ingratiatory grace man can avoid mortal sin, though not without the divine help by which divine providence guides man to do good and avoid evil. This is true when the person has been willing to make an effort against sin; and as a result of it any single mortal sin can be avoided. Others say that without grace man cannot remain long without sinning mortally. This is true in the respect that man cannot be habitually disposed to sin for a long time without having unexpectedly presented to him a need for action. When that occurs, because of the inclination of the bad habit he slips into consent to a mortal sin, since it is not possible for a man long to be sufficiently attentive to the need of taking pains to avoid mortal sin.

Now because the conclusion to the arguments for either side is to a certain extent true and to a certain extent false, answers to both sets of arguments must be given.

Answers to Difficulties:

1. That statement of the Apostle, according to different explanations, can be understood either of mortal sin and the evil of mortal sin if we take Paul to be speaking in the person of a sinner, or of the evil of venial sin as regards the first movements if we take him to be speaking in his own person or in that of other just men. But in either interpretation it must be understood that, though there is a natural will to avoid all evil, a sinner without grace cannot succeed in avoiding all mortal sins, even though he can avoid each one singly; and so he cannot without grace fulfill his natural will. And the same is true of a just man in regard to venial sins.

2. It is not possible for an adult without grace to be only in original sin, because as soon as he has attained the use of free choice, if he has prepared himself for grace, he will have grace; otherwise his very negligence will be imputed to him as a mortal sin. The argument given, moreover, seems to suppose the very difficulty which it adduces. If it is possible for an adult to be in original sin and no other, should he happen to die at that instant, he will be midway between the blessed and those who are being punished with the pain of sense--which is the difficulty which the argument itself adduces. In order that no force may be attributed to this argument, it should be observed that there is in original sin a habitual aversion from the unchangeable good, since the man having original sin does not have his heart joined to God by charity; and consequently, as far as the habitual aversion goes, the same is to be said of one in original sin and of one in mortal sin, though in mortal sin there is added to this an habitual conversion to an undue end. Furthermore, it does not follow that if someone should escape damnation by his free choice, he can for that reason by the strength of his free choice attain glory; for that is something more. And the rejoinder about man in the state of innocence is obvious.

3. Man without grace is bound by sin so that he acts contrary to the law, because, even though he can avoid this or that sin by a contrary effort, he still cannot avoid all sins, for the reason already given.*

4. Augustine's example about the crookedness of the leg is not parallel in some respects, because it is not within the power of the leg to make use of crookedness or not, and so every movement of the crooked leg must be a limp. But free choice can make use of its crookedness or not; and so it is not necessary for it to sin in every one of its acts, but it can sometimes avoid sin. But the example is parallel in this, that it is not possible to avoid all sins, as has been said.*

5. Although a sin not wiped out by repentance leads to another sin by giving an inclination, it is not necessary for free choice always to obey that inclination, but in an individual act it can make efforts against it.

6. Fear and anger, as passions, are not mortal sins but venial; for they are first movements.

7. Sins are said to be necessary inasmuch as not all can be avoided, though each singly can.

8. When flesh lusts against the spirit it is a vice, but one of venial sin.

9. The necessity of sinning either venially or mortally accompanies the necessity of dying except in the privileged persons, Christ and the Blessed Virgin; but the necessity of sinning mortally does not, as is clear of those having grace.

10. [The answer to this is lacking].

11. A crown is given to one who entirely conquers the devil and sin. But a man who avoids one sin while continuing in another, being a slave, is not a victor except perhaps in a certain respect. He therefore does not deserve a crown.

12. Cupidity cannot be understood absolutely to compel free choice, which is always free from force. But it is called compelling because of the vehemence of the inclination, which can still be resisted, though only with difficulty.

13. Free choice can make use of a habit or not. It is accordingly not necessary for a person always to act according to a habit, but he can sometimes also act contrary to it, though with difficulty. While the habit lasts, however, the person cannot by any chance remain long without acting according to the habit.

14. When grace is lacking, free choice can of itself choose evil. It is not, however, necessary that without ingratiatory grace it always choose evil.

15. It does not follow that by avoiding sin a person conquers the world, unless he is altogether free from sin, as was said above.

16. A commandment is observed in two ways: (1) Its observance merits glory. In this sense no one can observe the commandment in question or any other without grace. (2) Its observance averts punishment. In this sense it can be observed without ingratiatory grace. It is observed in the first way when the substance of the act is fulfilled along with the appointed manner, which is supplied by charity. In this sense the commandment to love is not so much a commandment as the end of the commandment and the form of other commandments. It is observed in the second way when only the substance of the act is fulfilled. This undoubtedly happens even in one who does not have the habit of charity. For according to the Philosopher even an unjust man can do something just.

17. That argument is not to the point. Granted that a man would commit a new sin in not having mercy upon himself by preparing himself for repentance, he is still able to avoid this sin, since he can prepare himself. Nor does a sinner necessarily commit a new sin whenever he does not have mercy upon himself by repenting, but only when for some special reason he is obliged to this.

18. A man of virtue is able not to love God actually but to act in a contrary fashion, as appears when he sins.

19. Although habits always produce acts like themselves, the one who has a habit can still enter upon an act contrary to the habit, because he does not always have to make use of the habit.

20. A man who lacks justice can perform an imperfect act of justice, which is to do something just--and this by reason of the principles of natural law implanted in reason. But he cannot perform an act of perfect justice, which is to do something just in a just manner. An unjust person can accordingly sometimes turn aside from evil.

21. The statement of the Master is not to be understood as meaning that it is necessary for a man in the state of mortal sin to succumb to every temptation, but that, unless he is freed from sin by grace, he will fall into some mortal sin at some time.

22. It is necessary for us to pray in the Lord's Prayer not only that past sins be forgiven but also that we be freed from future sins, because, unless a man is freed by grace, he must necessarily sometimes fall into sin in the manner mentioned,* though he can avoid this or that sin by striving against it.

23. It is necessary for a man abandoned by the light of grace to fall at some time; but it is not necessary for him to succumb to every temptation.

Answers to Contrary Difficulties:

1'. It would be prejudicial to the freedom of choice if we could not avoid sin by making an effort to the contrary. It is not, however, prejudicial to this freedom if a man cannot succeed in being constantly careful to resist sin. But when a man is not careful about this, he is drawn by his habitual inclination to what agrees with the habit.

2'. Because free choice has the mastery over its own act, it can, when it takes the trouble, not make use of its own defect. But since it is impossible for it always to take the trouble, the consequence is that it sometimes fails in its act.

3'. Mortal sin is not committed without the consent of free choice. But consent follows the habitual inclination unless a great deal of deliberation is exercised beforehand, as has been said.*

4'. A man is said to have fallen remediably because he can find a remedy in the help of grace even though the power of his free choice is not sufficient for this.

5'. To be unable to sin and to be unable not to sin are contraries, but to be able to sin and not sin falls between them. The supposition of the argument is therefore false.

6'. Choosing and deliberating are concerned only with what is in our power; but, as is said in the Ethics, "what we do through friends we somehow do through ourselves." Free choice can accordingly have choice and deliberation not only about the matters for which its own power suffices but also about those for which it needs divine help.

7'. A person in the state of mortal sin can avoid all mortal sins by the help of grace. He can also avoid them singly by his own natural power, though not all. It therefore does not follow that in committing a sin he does not sin.

8'. The necessity of sinning does not impose any constraint upon free choice. For even though a man cannot by himself free himself from that necessity, he can nevertheless to some extent resist that to which he is said to be necessitated, inasmuch as he can avoid individual sins, though not all.

9'. Sin becomes in some sense natural to the sinner, for a habit works in the one who has it like a sort of nature. The necessity which is had from a habit, then, is reduced to a natural inclination.

10'. According to Augustine something can be necessary and still voluntary. The will, for instance, necessarily abhors misery; and it does so because of a natural inclination. It is to such a natural inclination that the inclination of a habit is likened.

11'. A man in the state of sin can by no means free himself from a sin which he has already committed except by the help of grace; for, since sin consists in aversion, he is not freed from it unless his mind clings to God by charity, which does not come from free choice but is poured into the hearts of the saints by the Holy Spirit, as is said in the Epistle to the Romans (5:5).