Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Objection 1: It would seem that the New Law made insufficient ordinations about external acts. Because faith that worketh through charity seems chiefly to belong to the New Law, according to Gal. 5:6: "In Christ Jesus neither circumcision availeth anything, nor uncircumcision: but faith that worketh through charity." But the New Law declared explicitly certain points of faith which were not set forth explicitly in the Old Law; for instance, belief in the Trinity. Therefore it should also have added certain outward moral deeds, which were not fixed in the Old Law.

Objection 2: Further, in the Old Law not only were sacraments instituted, but also certain sacred things, as stated above (Question 101, Article 4; Question 102, Article 4). But in the New Law, although certain sacraments are instituted by Our Lord; for instance, pertaining either to the sanctification of a temple or of the vessels, or to the celebration of some particular feast. Therefore the New Law made insufficient ordinations about external matters.

Objection 3: Further, in the Old Law, just as there were certain observances pertaining to God's ministers, so also were there certain observances pertaining to the people: as was stated above when we were treating of the ceremonial of the Old Law (Question 101, Article 4; Question 102, Article 6). Now in the New Law certain observances seem to have been prescribed to the ministers of God; as may be gathered from Mt. 10:9: "Do not possess gold, nor silver, nor money in your purses," nor other things which are mentioned here and Lk. 9,10. Therefore certain observances pertaining to the faithful should also have been instituted in the New Law.

Objection 4: Further, in the Old Law, besides moral and ceremonial precepts, there were certain judicial precepts. But in the New Law there are no judicial precepts. Therefore the New Law made insufficient ordinations about external works.

On the contrary, Our Lord said (Mt. 7:24): "Every one . . . that heareth these My words, and doth them, shall be likened to a wise man that built his house upon a rock." But a wise builder leaves out nothing that is necessary to the building. Therefore Christ's words contain all things necessary for man's salvation.

I answer that, as stated above (Article 1), the New Law had to make such prescriptions or prohibitions alone as are essential for the reception or right use of grace. And since we cannot of ourselves obtain grace, but through Christ alone, hence Christ of Himself instituted the sacraments whereby we obtain grace: viz. Baptism, Eucharist, Orders of the ministers of the New Law, by the institution of the apostles and seventy-two disciples, Penance, and indissoluble Matrimony. He promised Confirmation through the sending of the Holy Ghost: and we read that by His institution the apostles healed the sick by anointing them with oil (Mk. 6:13). These are the sacraments of the New Law.

The right use of grace is by means of works of charity. These, in so far as they are essential to virtue, pertain to the moral precepts, which also formed part of the Old Law. Hence, in this respect, the New Law had nothing to add as regards external action. The determination of these works in their relation to the divine worship, belongs to the ceremonial precepts of the Law; and, in relation to our neighbor, to the judicial precepts, as stated above (Question 99, Article 4). And therefore, since these determinations are not in themselves necessarily connected with inward grace wherein the Law consists, they do not come under a precept of the New Law, but are left to the decision of man; some relating to inferiors---as when a precept is given to an individual; others, relating to superiors, temporal or spiritual, referring, namely, to the common good.

Accordingly the New Law had no other external works to determine, by prescribing or forbidding, except the sacraments, and those moral precepts which have a necessary connection with virtue, for instance, that one must not kill, or steal, and so forth.

Reply to Objection 1: Matters of faith are above human reason, and so we cannot attain to them except through grace. Consequently, when grace came to be bestowed more abundantly, the result was an increase in the number of explicit points of faith. On the other hand, it is through human reason that we are directed to works of virtue, for it is the rule of human action, as stated above (Question 19, Article 3; Question 63, Article 2). Wherefore in such matters as these there was no need for any precepts to be given besides the moral precepts of the Law, which proceed from the dictate of reason.

Reply to Objection 2: In the sacraments of the New Law grace is bestowed, which cannot be received except through Christ: consequently they had to be instituted by Him. But in the sacred things no grace is given: for instance, in the consecration of a temple, an altar or the like, or, again, in the celebration of feasts. Wherefore Our Lord left the institution of such things to the discretion of the faithful, since they have not of themselves any necessary connection with inward grace.

Reply to Objection 3: Our Lord gave the apostles those precepts not as ceremonial observances, but as moral statutes: and they can be understood in two ways. First, following Augustine (De Consensu Evang. 30), as being not commands but permissions. For He permitted them to set forth to preach without scrip or stick, and so on, since they were empowered to accept their livelihood from those to whom they preached: wherefore He goes on to say: "For the laborer is worthy of his hire." Nor is it a sin, but a work of supererogation for a preacher to take means of livelihood with him, without accepting supplies from those to whom he preaches; as Paul did (1 Cor. 9:4, seqq.).

Secondly, according to the explanation of other holy men, they may be considered as temporal commands laid upon the apostles for the time during which they were sent to preach in Judea before Christ's Passion. For the disciples, being yet as little children under Christ's care, needed to receive some special commands from Christ, such as all subjects receive from their superiors: and especially so, since they were to be accustomed little by little to renounce the care of temporalities, so as to become fitted for the preaching of the Gospel throughout the whole world. Nor must we wonder if He established certain fixed modes of life, as long as the state of the Old Law endured and the people had not as yet achieved the perfect liberty of the Spirit. These statutes He abolished shortly before His Passion, as though the disciples had by their means become sufficiently practiced. Hence He said (Lk. 22:35,36) "When I sent you without purse and scrip and shoes, did you want anything? But they said: Nothing. Then said He unto them: But now, he that hath a purse, let him take it, and likewise a scrip." Because the time of perfect liberty was already at hand, when they would be left entirely to their own judgment in matters not necessarily connected with virtue.

Reply to Objection 4: Judicial precepts also, are not essential to virtue in respect of any particular determination, but only in regard to the common notion of justice. Consequently Our Lord left the judicial precepts to the discretion of those who were to have spiritual or temporal charge of others. But as regards the judicial precepts of the Old Law, some of them He explained, because they were misunderstood by the Pharisees, as we shall state later on (Article 3, ad 2).

Articulus 2

Argumentum 1

Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod lex nova insufficienter exteriores actus ordinaverit. Ad legem enim novam praecipue pertinere videtur fides per dilectionem operans; secundum illud ad Gal. V, in christo iesu neque circumcisio aliquid valet neque praeputium, sed fides quae per dilectionem operatur.

Sed lex nova explicavit quaedam credenda quae non erant in veteri lege explicita, sicut de fide trinitatis.

Ergo etiam debuit superaddere aliqua exteriora opera moralia, quae non erant in veteri lege determinata.

Argumentum 2

Praeterea, in veteri lege non solum instituta sunt sacramenta, sed etiam aliqua sacra, ut supra dictum est.

Sed in nova lege, etsi sint instituta aliqua sacramenta, nulla tamen sacra instituta a domino videntur, puta quae pertineant vel ad sanctificationem alicuius templi aut vasorum, vel etiam ad aliquam solemnitatem celebrandam. Ergo lex nova insufficienter exteriora ordinavit.

Argumentum 3

Praeterea, in veteri lege, sicut erant quaedam observantiae pertinentes ad dei ministros, ita etiam erant quaedam observantiae pertinentes ad populum; ut supra dictum est, cum de caeremonialibus veteris legis ageretur. Sed in nova lege videntur aliquae observantiae esse datae ministris dei, ut patet Matth. X, nolite possidere aurum neque argentum, neque pecuniam in zonis vestris, et cetera quae ibi sequuntur, et quae dicuntur Luc. IX et X.

Ergo etiam debuerunt aliquae observantiae institui in nova lege ad populum fidelem pertinentes.

Argumentum 4

Praeterea, in veteri lege, praeter moralia et caeremonialia, fuerunt quaedam iudicialia praecepta. Sed in lege nova non traduntur aliqua iudicialia praecepta.

Ergo lex nova insufficienter exteriora opera ordinavit.

Sed Contra

Sed contra est quod dominus dicit, Matth. VII, omnis qui audit verba mea haec et facit ea, assimilabitur viro sapienti qui aedificavit domum suam supra petram.

Sed sapiens aedificator nihil omittit eorum quae sunt necessaria ad aedificium. Ergo in verbis christi sufficienter sunt omnia posita quae pertinent ad salutem humanam.

Corpus

Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, lex nova in exterioribus illa solum praecipere debuit vel prohibere, per quae in gratiam introducimur, vel quae pertinent ad rectum gratiae usum ex necessitate. Et quia gratiam ex nobis consequi non possumus, sed per christum solum, ideo sacramenta, per quae gratiam consequimur, ipse dominus instituit per seipsum, scilicet baptismum, eucharistiam, ordinem ministrorum novae legis, instituendo apostolos et septuaginta duos discipulos, et poenitentiam, et matrimonium indivisibile. Confirmationem etiam promisit per spiritus sancti missionem. Ex eius etiam institutione apostoli leguntur oleo infirmos ungendo sanasse, ut habetur Marc. VI.

Quae sunt novae legis sacramenta. Rectus autem gratiae usus est per opera caritatis. Quae quidem secundum quod sunt de necessitate virtutis, pertinent ad praecepta moralia, quae etiam in veteri lege tradebantur. Unde quantum ad hoc, lex nova super veterem addere non debuit circa exteriora agenda.

Determinatio autem praedictorum operum in ordine ad cultum dei, pertinet ad praecepta caeremonialia legis; in ordine vero ad proximum, ad iudicialia; ut supra dictum est.

Et ideo, quia istae determinationes non sunt secundum se de necessitate interioris gratiae, in qua lex consistit; idcirco non cadunt sub praecepto novae legis, sed relinquuntur humano arbitrio; quaedam quidem quantum ad subditos, quae scilicet pertinent singillatim ad unumquemque; quaedam vero ad praelatos temporales vel spirituales, quae scilicet pertinent ad utilitatem communem.

Sic igitur lex nova nulla alia exteriora opera determinare debuit praecipiendo vel prohibendo, nisi sacramenta, et moralia praecepta quae de se pertinent ad rationem virtutis, puta non esse occidendum, non esse furandum, et alia huiusmodi.

Ad 1

Ad primum ergo dicendum quod ea quae sunt fidei, sunt supra rationem humanam, unde in ea non possumus pervenire nisi per gratiam. Et ideo, abundantiori gratia superveniente, oportuit plura credenda explicari. Sed ad opera virtutum dirigimur per rationem naturalem, quae est regula quaedam operationis humanae, ut supra dictum est.

Et ideo in his non oportuit aliqua praecepta dari ultra moralia legis praecepta, quae sunt de dictamine rationis.

Ad 2

Ad secundum dicendum quod in sacramentis novae legis datur gratia, quae non est nisi a christo, et ideo oportuit quod ab ipso institutionem haberent. Sed in sacris non datur aliqua gratia, puta in consecratione templi vel altaris vel aliorum huiusmodi, aut etiam in ipsa celebritate solemnitatum. Et ideo talia, quia secundum seipsa non pertinent ad necessitatem interioris gratiae, dominus fidelibus instituenda reliquit pro suo arbitrio.

Ad 3

Ad tertium dicendum quod illa praecepta dominus dedit apostolis non tanquam caeremoniales observantias, sed tanquam moralia instituta. Et possunt intelligi dupliciter. Uno modo, secundum Augustinum, in libro de consensu Evangelist., ut non sint praecepta, sed concessiones. Concessit enim eis ut possent pergere ad praedicationis officium sine pera et baculo et aliis huiusmodi, tanquam habentes potestatem necessaria vitae accipiendi ab illis quibus praedicabant, unde subdit, dignus enim est operarius cibo suo. Non autem peccat, sed supererogat, qui sua portat, ex quibus vivat in praedicationis officio, non accipiens sumptum ab his quibus evangelium praedicat, sicut Paulus fecit. Alio modo possunt intelligi, secundum aliorum sanctorum expositionem, ut sint quaedam statuta temporalia apostolis data pro illo tempore quo mittebantur ad praedicandum in Iudaea ante christi passionem. Indigebant enim discipuli, quasi adhuc parvuli sub christi cura existentes, accipere aliqua specialia instituta a christo, sicut et quilibet subditi a suis praelatis, et praecipue quia erant paulatim exercitandi ut temporalium sollicitudinem abdicarent, per quod reddebantur idonei ad hoc quod evangelium per universum orbem praedicarent. Nec est mirum si, adhuc durante statu veteris legis, et nondum perfectam libertatem spiritus consecutis, quosdam determinatos modos vivendi instituit. Quae quidem statuta, imminente passione, removit, tanquam discipulis iam per ea sufficienter exercitatis.

Unde Luc. XXII, dixit, quando misi vos sine sacculo et pera et calceamentis, numquid aliquid defuit vobis? at illi dixerunt, nihil. Dixit ergo eis, sed nunc qui habet sacculum, tollat; similiter et peram.

Iam enim imminebat tempus perfectae libertatis, ut totaliter suo dimitterentur arbitrio in his quae secundum se non pertinent ad necessitatem virtutis.

Ad 4

Ad quartum dicendum quod iudicialia etiam, secundum se considerata, non sunt de necessitate virtutis quantum ad talem determinationem sed solum quantum ad communem rationem iustitiae. Et ideo iudicialia praecepta reliquit dominus disponenda his qui curam aliorum erant habituri vel spiritualem vel temporalem. Sed circa iudicialia praecepta veteris legis quaedam explanavit, propter malum intellectum Pharisaeorum, ut infra dicetur.