Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Objection 1: It would seem that justice is not always towards another. For the Apostle says (Rm. 3:22) that "the justice of God is by faith of Jesus Christ." Now faith does not concern the dealings of one man with another. Neither therefore does justice.

Objection 2: Further, according to Augustine (De Moribus Eccl. xv), "it belongs to justice that man should direct to the service of God his authority over the things that are subject to him." Now the sensitive appetite is subject to man, according to Gn. 4:7, where it is written: "The lust thereof," viz. of sin, "shall be under thee, and thou shalt have dominion over it." Therefore it belongs to justice to have dominion over one's own appetite: so that justice is towards oneself.

Objection 3: Further, the justice of God is eternal. But nothing else is co-eternal with God. Therefore justice is not essentially towards another.

Objection 4: Further, man's dealings with himself need to be rectified no less than his dealings with another. Now man's dealings are rectified by justice, according to Prov. 11:5, "The justice of the upright shall make his way prosperous." Therefore justice is about our dealings not only with others, but also with ourselves.

On the contrary, Tully says (De Officiis i, 7) that "the object of justice is to keep men together in society and mutual intercourse." Now this implies relationship of one man to another. Therefore justice is concerned only about our dealings with others.

I answer that, As stated above (Question 57, Article 1) since justice by its name implies equality, it denotes essentially relation to another, for a thing is equal, not to itself, but to another. And forasmuch as it belongs to justice to rectify human acts, as stated above (Question 57, Article 1; 1.2, Question 113, Article 1) this otherness which justice demands must needs be between beings capable of action. Now actions belong to supposits and wholes and, properly speaking, not to parts and forms or powers, for we do not say properly that the hand strikes, but a man with his hand, nor that heat makes a thing hot, but fire by heat, although such expressions may be employed metaphorically. Hence, justice properly speaking demands a distinction of supposits, and consequently is only in one man towards another. Nevertheless in one and the same man we may speak metaphorically of his various principles of action such as the reason, the irascible, and the concupiscible, as though they were so many agents: so that metaphorically in one and the same man there is said to be justice in so far as the reason commands the irascible and concupiscible, and these obey reason; and in general in so far as to each part of man is ascribed what is becoming to it. Hence the Philosopher (Ethic. v, 11) calls this "metaphorical justice."

Reply to Objection 1: The justice which faith works in us, is that whereby the ungodly is justified it consists in the due coordination of the parts of the soul, as stated above (1.2, Question 113, Article 1) where we were treating of the justification of the ungodly. Now this belongs to metaphorical justice, which may be found even in a man who lives all by himself.

This suffices for the Reply to the Second Objection.

Reply to Objection 3: God's justice is from eternity in respect of the eternal will and purpose (and it is chiefly in this that justice consists); although it is not eternal as regards its effect, since nothing is co-eternal with God.

Reply to Objection 4: Man's dealings with himself are sufficiently rectified by the rectification of the passions by the other moral virtues. But his dealings with others need a special rectification, not only in relation to the agent, but also in relation to the person to whom they are directed. Hence about such dealings there is a special virtue, and this is justice.

Articulus 2

Argumentum 1

Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod iustitia non semper sit ad alterum.

Dicit enim apostolus, ad Rom. III, quod iustitia dei est per fidem iesu christi.

Sed fides non dicitur per comparationem unius hominis ad alterum.

Ergo neque iustitia.

Argumentum 2

Praeterea, secundum Augustinum, in libro de moribus eccles., ad iustitiam pertinet, ob hoc quod servit deo, bene imperare ceteris, quae homini sunt subiecta.

Sed appetitus sensitivus est homini subiectus, ut patet Gen. IV, ubi dicitur, subter te erit appetitus eius, scilicet peccati, et tu dominaberis illius.

Ergo ad iustitiam pertinet dominari proprio appetitui.

Et sic erit iustitia ad seipsum.

Argumentum 3

Praeterea, iustitia dei est aeterna. Sed nihil aliud fuit deo coaeternum. Ergo de ratione iustitiae non est quod sit ad alterum.

Argumentum 4

Praeterea, sicut operationes quae sunt ad alterum indigent rectificari, ita etiam operationes quae sunt ad seipsum. Sed per iustitiam rectificantur operationes, secundum illud Prov. XI, iustitia simplicis dirigit viam eius.

Ergo iustitia non solum est circa ea quae sunt ad alterum, sed etiam circa ea quae sunt ad seipsum.

Sed Contra

Sed contra est quod tullius dicit, in I de offic., quod iustitiae ea ratio est qua societas hominum inter ipsos, et vitae communitas continetur.

Sed hoc importat respectum ad alterum.

Ergo iustitia est solum circa ea quae sunt ad alterum.

Corpus

Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, cum nomen iustitiae aequalitatem importet, ex sua ratione iustitia habet quod sit ad alterum, nihil enim est sibi aequale, sed alteri. Et quia ad iustitiam pertinet actus humanos rectificare, ut dictum est, necesse est quod alietas ista quam requirit iustitia, sit diversorum agere potentium. Actiones autem sunt suppositorum et totorum, non autem, proprie loquendo, partium et formarum, seu potentiarum, non enim proprie dicitur quod manus percutiat, sed homo per manum; neque proprie dicitur quod calor calefaciat, sed ignis per calorem. Secundum tamen similitudinem quandam haec dicuntur. Iustitia ergo proprie dicta requirit diversitatem suppositorum, et ideo non est nisi unius hominis ad alium. Sed secundum similitudinem accipiuntur in uno et eodem homine diversa principia actionum quasi diversa agentia, sicut ratio et irascibilis et concupiscibilis. Et ideo metaphorice in uno et eodem homine dicitur esse iustitia, secundum quod ratio imperat irascibili et concupiscibili, et secundum quod hae obediunt rationi, et universaliter secundum quod unicuique parti hominis attribuitur quod ei convenit.

Unde philosophus, in V ethic., hanc iustitiam appellat secundum metaphoram dictam.

Ad 1

Ad primum ergo dicendum quod iustitia quae fit per fidem in nobis, est per quam iustificatur impius, quae quidem in ipsa debita ordinatione partium animae consistit, sicut supra dictum est, cum de iustificatione impii ageretur.

Hoc autem pertinet ad iustitiam metaphorice dictam, quae potest inveniri etiam in aliquo solitariam vitam agente.

Ad 2

Et per hoc patet responsio ad secundum.

Ad 3

Ad tertium dicendum quod iustitia dei est ab aeterno secundum voluntatem et propositum aeternum, et in hoc praecipue iustitia consistit. Quamvis secundum effectum non sit ab aeterno, quia nihil est deo coaeternum.

Ad 4

Ad quartum dicendum quod actiones quae sunt hominis ad seipsum sufficienter rectificantur rectificatis passionibus per alias virtutes morales. Sed actiones quae sunt ad alterum indigent speciali rectificatione, non solum per comparationem ad agentem, sed etiam per comparationem ad eum ad quem sunt. Et ideo circa eas est specialis virtus, quae est iustitia.