Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Objection 1: It would seem that there is not a different matter for both kinds of justice. Diversity of matter causes diversity of virtue, as in the case of fortitude and temperance. Therefore, if distributive and commutative justice have different matters, it would seem that they are not comprised under the same virtue, viz. justice.

Objection 2: Further, the distribution that has to do with distributive justice is one of "wealth or of honors, or of whatever can be distributed among the members of the community" (Ethic. v, 2), which very things are the subject matter of commutations between one person and another, and this belongs to commutative justice. Therefore the matters of distributive and commutative justice are not distinct.

Objection 3: Further, if the matter of distributive justice differs from that of commutative justice, for the reason that they differ specifically, where there is no specific difference, there ought to be no diversity of matter. Now the Philosopher (Ethic. v, 2) reckons commutative justice as one species, and yet this has many kinds of matter. Therefore the matter of these species of justice is, seemingly, not of many kinds.

On the contrary, It is stated in Ethic. v, 2 that "one kind of justice directs distributions, and another commutations."

I answer that, As stated above (Question 51, Articles 8,10), justice is about certain external operations, namely distribution and commutation. These consist in the use of certain externals, whether things, persons or even works: of things, as when one man takes from or restores to another that which is his; of persons, as when a man does an injury to the very person of another, for instance by striking or insulting him, or even by showing respect for him; and of works, as when a man justly exacts a work of another, or does a work for him. Accordingly, if we take for the matter of each kind of justice the things themselves of which the operations are the use, the matter of distributive and commutative justice is the same, since things can be distributed out of the common property to individuals, and be the subject of commutation between one person and another; and again there is a certain distribution and payment of laborious works.

If, however, we take for the matter of both kinds of justice the principal actions themselves, whereby we make use of persons, things, and works, there is then a difference of matter between them. For distributive justice directs distributions, while commutative justice directs commutations that can take place between two persons. of these some are involuntary, some voluntary. They are involuntary when anyone uses another man's chattel, person, or work against his will, and this may be done secretly by fraud, or openly by violence. In either case the offence may be committed against the other man's chattel or person, or against a person connected with him. If the offence is against his chattel and this be taken secretly, it is called "theft," if openly, it is called "robbery." If it be against another man's person, it may affect either the very substance of his person, or his dignity. If it be against the substance of his person, a man is injured secretly if he is treacherously slain, struck or poisoned, and openly, if he is publicly slain, imprisoned, struck or maimed. If it be against his personal dignity, a man is injured secretly by false witness, detractions and so forth, whereby he is deprived of his good name, and openly, by being accused in a court of law, or by public insult. If it be against a personal connection, a man is injured in the person of his wife, secretly (for the most part) by adultery, in the person of his slave, if the latter be induced to leave his master: which things can also be done openly. The same applies to other personal connections, and whatever injury may be committed against the principal, may be committed against them also. Adultery, however, and inducing a slave to leave his master are properly injuries against the person; yet the latter, since a slave is his master's chattel, is referred to theft. Voluntary commutations are when a man voluntarily transfers his chattel to another person. And if he transfer it simply so that the recipient incurs no debt, as in the case of gifts, it is an act, not of justice but of liberality. A voluntary transfer belongs to justice in so far as it includes the notion of debt, and this may occur in many ways. First when one man simply transfers his thing to another in exchange for another thing, as happens in selling and buying. Secondly when a man transfers his thing to another, that the latter may have the use of it with the obligation of returning it to its owner. If he grant the use of a thing gratuitously, it is called "usufruct" in things that bear fruit; and simply "borrowing" on "loan" in things that bear no fruit, such as money, pottery, etc.; but if not even the use is granted gratis, it is called "letting" or "hiring." Thirdly, a man transfers his thing with the intention of recovering it, not for the purpose of its use, but that it may be kept safe, as in a "deposit," or under some obligation, as when a man pledges his property, or when one man stands security for another. In all these actions, whether voluntary or involuntary, the mean is taken in the same way according to the equality of repayment. Hence all these actions belong to the one same species of justice, namely commutative justice. And this suffices for the Replies to the Objections.

Articulus 3

Argumentum 1

Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod materia utriusque iustitiae non sit diversa. Diversitas enim materiae facit diversitatem virtutis, ut patet in temperantia et fortitudine.

Si igitur distributivae iustitiae et commutativae sit diversa materia, videtur quod non contineantur sub una virtute, scilicet sub iustitia.

Argumentum 2

Praeterea, distributio, quae pertinet ad distributivam iustitiam, est pecuniae vel honoris vel aliorum quaecumque dispertiri possunt inter eos qui communitate communicant; ut dicitur in V ethic..

Quorum etiam est commutatio inter personas ad invicem, quae pertinet ad commutativam iustitiam.

Ergo non est diversa materia distributivae et commutativae iustitiae.

Argumentum 3

Praeterea, si sit alia materia distributivae iustitiae et alia materia commutativae propter hoc quod differunt specie, ubi non erit differentia speciei, non debebit esse materiae diversitas.

Sed philosophus ponit unam speciem commutativae iustitiae, quae tamen habet multiplicem materiam. Non ergo videtur esse multiplex materia harum specierum.

Sed Contra

In contrarium est quod dicitur in V ethic., quod una species iustitiae est directiva in distributionibus, alia in commutationibus.

Corpus

Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, iustitia est circa quasdam operationes exteriores, scilicet distributionem et commutationem, quae quidem sunt usus quorundam exteriorum, vel rerum vel personarum vel etiam operum, rerum quidem, sicut cum aliquis vel aufert vel restituit alteri suam rem; personarum autem, sicut cum aliquis in ipsam personam hominis iniuriam facit, puta percutiendo vel conviciando, aut etiam cum reverentiam exhibet; operum autem, sicut cum quis iuste ab alio exigit vel alteri reddit aliquod opus. Si igitur accipiamus ut materiam utriusque iustitiae ea quorum operationes sunt usus, eadem est materia distributivae et commutativae iustitiae, nam et res distribui possunt a communi in singulos, et commutari de uno in alium; et etiam est quaedam distributio laboriosorum operum, et recompensatio. Si autem accipiamus ut materiam utriusque iustitiae actiones ipsas principales quibus utimur personis, rebus et operibus, sic invenitur utrobique alia materia. Nam distributiva iustitia est directiva distributionis, commutativa vero iustitia est directiva commutationum quae attendi possunt inter duas personas. Quarum quaedam sunt involuntariae; quaedam vero voluntariae. Involuntariae quidem, quando aliquis utitur re alterius vel persona vel opere, eo invito. Quod quidem contingit quandoque occulte per fraudem; quandoque etiam manifeste per violentiam. Utrumque autem contingit aut in rem aut in personam propriam, aut in personam coniunctam. In rem quidem, si occulte unus rem alterius accipiat, vocatur furtum; si autem manifeste, vocatur rapina. In personam autem propriam, vel quantum ad ipsam consistentiam personae; vel quantum ad dignitatem ipsius. Si autem quantum ad consistentiam personae, sic laeditur aliquis occulte per dolosam occisionem seu percussionem, et per veneni exhibitionem; manifeste autem per occisionem manifestam, aut per incarcerationem aut verberationem seu membri mutilationem.

Quantum autem ad dignitatem personae, laeditur aliquis occulte quidem per falsa testimonia seu detractiones, quibus aliquis aufert famam suam, et per alia huiusmodi; manifeste autem per accusationem in iudicio, seu per convicii illationem. Quantum autem ad personam coniunctam, laeditur aliquis in uxore, ut in pluribus occulte, per adulterium; in servo autem, cum aliquis servum seducit, ut a domino discedat; et haec etiam manifeste fieri possunt. Et eadem ratio est de aliis personis coniunctis, in quas etiam possunt omnibus modis iniuriae committi sicut et in personam principalem. Sed adulterium et servi seductio sunt proprie iniuriae circa has personas, tamen, quia servus est possessio quaedam, hoc refertur ad furtum.

Voluntariae autem commutationes dicuntur quando aliquis voluntarie transfert rem suam in alterum. Et si quidem simpliciter in alterum transferat rem suam absque debito, sicut in donatione, non est actus iustitiae, sed liberalitatis. Intantum autem ad iustitiam voluntaria translatio pertinet inquantum est ibi aliquid de ratione debiti. Quod quidem contingit tripliciter.

Uno modo, quando aliquis transfert simpliciter rem suam in alterum pro recompensatione alterius rei, sicut accidit in venditione et emptione. Secundo modo, quando aliquis tradit rem suam alteri concedens ei usum rei cum debito recuperandi rem.

Et si quidem gratis concedit usum rei, vocatur ususfructus in rebus quae aliquid fructificant; vel simpliciter mutuum seu accommodatum in rebus quae non fructificant, sicut sunt denarii, vasa et huiusmodi. Si vero nec ipse usus gratis conceditur, vocatur locatio et conductio. Tertio modo aliquis tradit rem suam ut recuperandam, non ratione usus, sed vel ratione conservationis, sicut in deposito; vel ratione obligationis, sicut cum quis rem suam pignori obligat, seu cum aliquis pro alio fideiubet. In omnibus autem huiusmodi actionibus, sive voluntariis sive involuntariis, est eadem ratio accipiendi medium secundum aequalitatem recompensationis. Et ideo omnes istae actiones ad unam speciem iustitiae pertinent, scilicet ad commutativam.

Et per hoc patet responsio ad obiecta.