Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Objection 1: It would seem that restitution is not an act of commutative justice. For justice regards the notion of what is due. Now one may restore, even as one may give, that which is not due. Therefore restitution is not the act of any part of justice.

Objection 2: Further, that which has passed away and is no more cannot be restored. Now justice and injustice are about certain actions and passions, which are unenduring and transitory. Therefore restitution would not seem to be the act of a part of justice.

Objection 3: Further, restitution is repayment of something taken away. Now something may be taken away from a man not only in commutation, but also in distribution, as when, in distributing, one gives a man less than his due. Therefore restitution is not more an act of commutative than of distributive justice.

On the contrary, Restitution is opposed to taking away. Now it is an act of commutative injustice to take away what belongs to another. Therefore to restore it is an act of that justice which directs commutations.

I answer that, To restore is seemingly the same as to reinstate a person in the possession or dominion of his thing, so that in restitution we consider the equality of justice attending the payment of one thing for another, and this belongs to commutative justice. Hence restitution is an act of commutative justice, occasioned by one person having what belongs to another, either with his consent, for instance on loan or deposit, or against his will, as in robbery or theft.

Reply to Objection 1: That which is not due to another is not his properly speaking, although it may have been his at some time: wherefore it is a mere gift rather than a restitution, when anyone renders to another what is not due to him. It is however somewhat like a restitution, since the thing itself is materially the same; yet it is not the same in respect of the formal aspect of justice, which considers that thing as belonging to this particular man: and so it is not restitution properly so called.

Reply to Objection 2: In so far as the word restitution denotes something done over again, it implies identity of object. Hence it would seem originally to have applied chiefly to external things, which can pass from one person to another, since they remain the same both substantially and in respect of the right of dominion. But, even as the term "commutation" has passed from such like things to those actions and passions which confer reverence or injury, harm or profit on another person, so too the term "restitution" is applied, to things which though they be transitory in reality, yet remain in their effect; whether this touch his body, as when the body is hurt by being struck, or his reputation, as when a man remains defamed or dishonored by injurious words.

Reply to Objection 3: Compensation is made by the distributor to the man to whom less was given than his due, by comparison of thing with thing, when the latter receives so much the more according as he received less than his due: and consequently it pertains to commutative justice.

Articulus 1

Argumentum 1

Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod restitutio non sit actus iustitiae commutativae. Iustitia enim respicit rationem debiti. Sed sicut donatio potest esse eius quod non debetur, ita etiam et restitutio. Ergo restitutio non est actus alicuius partis iustitiae.

Argumentum 2

Praeterea, illud quod iam transiit et non est, restitui non potest. Sed iustitia et iniustitia sunt circa quasdam actiones et passiones, quae non manent, sed transeunt.

Ergo restitutio non videtur esse actus alicuius partis iustitiae.

Argumentum 3

Praeterea, restitutio est quasi quaedam recompensatio eius quod subtractum est. Sed aliquid potest homini subtrahi non solum in commutatione, sed etiam in distributione, puta cum aliquis distribuens minus dat alicui quam debeat habere. Ergo restitutio non magis est actus commutativae iustitiae quam distributivae.

Sed Contra

Sed contra, restitutio ablationi opponitur. Sed ablatio rei alienae est actus iniustitiae circa commutationes. Ergo restitutio eius est actus iustitiae quae est in commutationibus directiva.

Corpus

Respondeo dicendum quod restituere nihil aliud esse videtur quam iterato aliquem statuere in possessionem vel dominium rei suae. Et ita in restitutione attenditur aequalitas iustitiae secundum recompensationem rei ad rem, quae pertinet ad iustitiam commutativam. Et ideo restitutio est actus commutativae iustitiae, quando scilicet res unius ab alio habetur, vel per voluntatem eius, sicut in mutuo vel deposito; vel contra voluntatem eius, sicut in rapina vel furto.

Ad 1

Ad primum ergo dicendum quod illud quod alteri non debetur non est, proprie loquendo, eius, etsi aliquando eius fuerit. Et ideo magis videtur esse nova donatio quam restitutio cum quis alteri reddit quod ei non debet. Habet tamen aliquam similitudinem restitutionis, quia res materialiter est eadem. Non tamen est eadem secundum formalem rationem quam respicit iustitia, quod est esse suum alicuius. Unde nec proprie restitutio dicitur.

Ad 2

Ad secundum dicendum quod nomen restitutionis, inquantum importat iterationem quandam, supponit rei identitatem.

Et ideo secundum primam impositionem nominis, restitutio videtur locum habere praecipue in rebus exterioribus, quae manentes eaedem et secundum substantiam et secundum ius dominii, ab uno possunt ad alium devenire. Sed sicut ab huiusmodi rebus nomen commutationis translatum est ad actiones vel passiones quae pertinent ad reverentiam vel iniuriam alicuius personae, seu nocumentum vel profectum; ita etiam nomen restitutionis ad haec derivatur quae, licet realiter non maneant, tamen manent in effectu, vel corporali, puta cum ex percussione laeditur corpus; vel qui est in opinione hominum, sicut cum aliquis verbo opprobrioso remanet homo infamatus, vel etiam minoratus in suo honore.

Ad 3

Ad tertium dicendum quod recompensatio quam facit distribuens ei cui dedit minus quam debuit, fit secundum comparationem rei ad rem, ut si quanto minus habuit quam debuit, tanto plus ei detur. Et ideo iam pertinet ad iustitiam commutativam.