Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Objection 1: It seems that covetousness is the greatest of sins. For it is written (Ecclus. 10:9): "Nothing is more wicked than a covetous man," and the text continues: "There is not a more wicked thing than to love money: for such a one setteth even his own soul to sale." Tully also says (De Offic. i, under the heading, 'True magnanimity is based chiefly on two things'): "Nothing is so narrow or little minded as to love money." But this pertains to covetousness. Therefore covetousness is the most grievous of sins.

Objection 2: Further, the more a sin is opposed to charity, the more grievous it is. Now covetousness is most opposed to charity: for Augustine says (Questions 83, qu. 36) that "greed is the bane of charity." Therefore covetousness is the greatest of sins.

Objection 3: Further, the gravity of a sin is indicated by its being incurable: wherefore the sin against the Holy Ghost is said to be most grievous, because it is irremissible. But covetousness is an incurable sin: hence the Philosopher says (Ethic. iv, 1) that "old age and helplessness of any kind make men illiberal." Therefore covetousness is the most grievous of sins.

Objection 4: Further, the Apostle says (Eph. 5:5) that covetousness is "a serving of idols." Now idolatry is reckoned among the most grievous sins. Therefore covetousness is also.

On the contrary, Adultery is a more grievous sin than theft, according to Prov. 6:30. But theft pertains to covetousness. Therefore covetousness is not the most grievous of sins.

I answer that, Every sin, from the very fact that it is an evil, consists in the corruption or privation of some good: while, in so far as it is voluntary, it consists in the desire of some good. Consequently the order of sins may be considered in two ways. First, on the part of the good that is despised or corrupted by sin, and then the greater the good the graver the sin. From this point of view a sin that is against God is most grievous; after this comes a sin that is committed against a man's person, and after this comes a sin against external things, which are deputed to man's use, and this seems to belong to covetousness. Secondly, the degrees of sin may be considered on the part of the good to which the human appetite is inordinately subjected; and then the lesser the good, the more deformed is the sin: for it is more shameful to be subject to a lower than to a higher good. Now the good of external things is the lowest of human goods: since it is less than the good of the body, and this is less than the good of the soul, which is less than the Divine good. From this point of view the sin of covetousness, whereby the human appetite is subjected even to external things, has in a way a greater deformity. Since, however, corruption or privation of good is the formal element in sin, while conversion to a mutable good is the material element, the gravity of the sin is to be judged from the point of view of the good corrupted, rather than from that of the good to which the appetite is subjected. Hence we must assert that covetousness is not simply the most grievous of sins.

Reply to Objection 1: These authorities speak of covetousness on the part of the good to which the appetite is subjected. Hence (Ecclus. 10:10) it is given as a reason that the covetous man "setteth his own soul to sale"; because, to wit, he exposes his soul---that is, his life---to danger for the sake of money. Hence the text continues: "Because while he liveth he hath cast away"---that is, despised---"his bowels," in order to make money. Tully also adds that it is the mark of a "narrow mind," namely, that one be willing to be subject to money.

Reply to Objection 2: Augustine is taking greed generally, in reference to any temporal good, not in its special acceptation for covetousness: because greed for any temporal good is the bane of charity, inasmuch as a man turns away from the Divine good through cleaving to a temporal good.

Reply to Objection 3: The sin against the Holy Ghost is incurable in one way, covetousness in another. For the sin against the Holy Ghost is incurable by reason of contempt: for instance, because a man contemns God's mercy, or His justice, or some one of those things whereby man's sins are healed: wherefore incurability of this kind points to the greater gravity of the sin. on the other hand, covetousness is incurable on the part of a human defect; a thing which human nature ever seeks to remedy, since the more deficient one is the more one seeks relief from external things, and consequently the more one gives way to covetousness. Hence incurability of this kind is an indication not of the sin being more grievous, but of its being somewhat more dangerous.

Reply to Objection 4: Covetousness is compared to idolatry on account of a certain likeness that it bears to it: because the covetous man, like the idolater, subjects himself to an external creature, though not in the same way. For the idolater subjects himself to an external creature by paying it Divine honor, whereas the covetous man subjects himself to an external creature by desiring it immoderately for use, not for worship. Hence it does not follow that covetousness is as grievous a sin as idolatry.

Articulus 5

Argumentum 1

Ad quintum sic proceditur. Videtur quod avaritia sit maximum peccatorum.

Dicitur enim Eccli. X, avaro nihil est scelestius; et postea subditur, nihil est iniquius quam amare pecuniam, hic enim et animam suam venalem habet.

Et tullius dicit, in I de offic., nihil est tam angusti animi, tamque parvi, quam amare pecuniam.

Sed hoc pertinet ad avaritiam.

Ergo avaritia est gravissimum peccatorum.

Argumentum 2

Praeterea, tanto aliquod peccatum est gravius quanto magis caritati contrariatur. Sed avaritia maxime contrariatur caritati, dicit enim Augustinus, in libro octoginta trium quaest., quod venenum caritatis est cupiditas.

Ergo avaritia est maximum peccatorum.

Argumentum 3

Praeterea, ad gravitatem peccati pertinet quod sit incurabile, unde et peccatum in spiritum sanctum, quod est gravissimum, dicitur esse irremissibile. Sed avaritia est peccatum insanabile, ut dicit philosophus, in IV ethic., quod senectus et omnis impotentia illiberales facit.

Ergo avaritia est gravissimum peccatorum.

Argumentum 4

Praeterea, apostolus dicit, ad Ephes. V, quod avaritia est idolorum servitus. Sed idololatria computatur inter gravissima peccata. Ergo et avaritia.

Sed Contra

Sed contra est quod adulterium est gravius peccatum quam furtum, ut habetur Prov. VI.

Furtum autem pertinet ad avaritiam. Ergo avaritia non est gravissimum peccatorum.

Corpus

Respondeo dicendum quod omne peccatum, ex hoc ipso quod est malum, consistit in quadam corruptione seu privatione alicuius boni, inquantum autem est voluntarium, consistit in appetitu alicuius boni. Dupliciter ergo ordo peccatorum potest attendi. Uno modo, ex parte boni quod per peccatum contemnitur vel corrumpitur, quod quanto maius est, tanto peccatum gravius est. Et secundum hoc, peccatum quod est contra deum est gravissimum; et sub hoc est peccatum quod est contra personam hominis; sub quo est peccatum quod est contra res exteriores quae sunt ad usum hominis deputatae, quod videtur ad avaritiam pertinere. Alio modo potest attendi gradus peccatorum ex parte boni cui inordinate subditur appetitus humanus, quod quanto minus est, tanto peccatum est deformius; turpius enim est subesse inferiori bono quam superiori. Bonum autem exteriorum rerum est infimum inter humana bona, est enim minus quam bonum corporis; quod etiam est minus quam bonum animae; quod etiam exceditur a bono divino.

Et secundum hoc, peccatum avaritiae, quo appetitus humanus subiicitur etiam exterioribus rebus, habet quodammodo deformitatem maiorem. Quia tamen corruptio vel privatio boni formaliter se habet in peccato, conversio autem ad bonum commutabile materialiter; magis est iudicanda gravitas peccati ex parte boni quod corrumpitur quam ex parte boni cui subiicitur appetitus. Et ideo dicendum est quod avaritia non est simpliciter maximum peccatorum.

Ad 1

Ad primum ergo dicendum quod auctoritates illae loquuntur de avaritia ex parte boni cui subditur appetitus.

Unde et in ecclesiastico pro ratione subditur, quia avarus animam suam habet venalem, quia videlicet animam suam, idest vitam, exponit periculis pro pecunia, et ideo subdit, quoniam in vita sua proiecit, idest contempsit, intima sua, ut scilicet pecuniam lucraretur.

Tullius etiam addit hoc esse angusti animi, ut scilicet velit pecuniae subiici.

Ad 2

Ad secundum dicendum quod Augustinus ibi accipit cupiditatem generaliter cuiuscumque temporalis boni, non secundum quod specialiter pro avaritia accipitur. Cupiditas enim cuiuscumque temporalis boni est venenum caritatis, inquantum scilicet homo spernit bonum divinum propter hoc quod inhaeret bono temporali.

Ad 3

Ad tertium dicendum quod aliter est insanabile peccatum in spiritum sanctum, et aliter avaritia. Nam peccatum in spiritum sanctum est insanabile ex parte contemptus, puta quia homo contemnit vel misericordiam vel iustitiam divinam, aut aliquid horum per quae hominis peccata sanantur. Et ideo talis insanabilitas pertinet ad maiorem gravitatem peccati. Avaritia vero habet insanabilitatem ex parte defectus humani, in quem scilicet semper procedit humana natura, quia quo aliquis est magis deficiens, eo magis indiget adminiculo exteriorum rerum, et ideo magis in avaritiam labitur. Unde per talem insanabilitatem non ostenditur peccatum esse gravius, sed quodammodo per hoc est periculosius.

Ad 4

Ad quartum dicendum quod avaritia comparatur idololatriae per quandam similitudinem quam habet ad ipsam, quia sicut idololatra subiicit se creaturae exteriori, ita etiam et avarus. Non tamen eodem modo, sed idololatra quidem subiicit se creaturae exteriori ut exhibeat ei cultum divinum; avarus autem subiicit se creaturae exteriori immoderate ipsam concupiscendo ad usum, non ad cultum. Et ideo non oportet quod avaritia habeat tantam gravitatem quantam habet idololatria.