Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Objection 1: It would seem that there cannot be virtue and vice in connection with outward apparel. For outward adornment does not belong to us by nature, wherefore it varies according to different times and places. Hence Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. iii, 12) that "among the ancient Romans it was scandalous for one to wear a cloak with sleeves and reaching to the ankles, whereas now it is scandalous for anyone hailing from a reputable place to be without them." Now according to the Philosopher (Ethic. ii, 1) there is in us a natural aptitude for the virtues. Therefore there is no virtue or vice about such things.

Objection 2: Further, if there were virtue and vice in connection with outward attire, excess in this matter would be sinful. Now excess in outward attire is not apparently sinful, since even the ministers of the altar use most precious vestments in the sacred ministry. Likewise it would seem not to be sinful to be lacking in this, for it is said in praise of certain people (Heb. 11:37): "They wandered about in sheepskins and in goatskins." Therefore it seems that there cannot be virtue and vice in this matter.

Objection 3: Further, every virtue is either theological, or moral, or intellectual. Now an intellectual virtue is not conversant with matter of this kind, since it is a perfection regarding the knowledge of truth. Nor is there a theological virtue connected therewith, since that has God for its object; nor are any of the moral virtues enumerated by the Philosopher (Ethic. ii, 7), connected with it. Therefore it seems that there cannot be virtue and vice in connection with this kind of attire.

On the contrary, Honesty pertains to virtue. Now a certain honesty is observed in the outward apparel; for Ambrose says (De Offic. i, 19): "The body should be bedecked naturally and without affectation, with simplicity, with negligence rather than nicety, not with costly and dazzling apparel, but with ordinary clothes, so that nothing be lacking to honesty and necessity, yet nothing be added to increase its beauty." Therefore there can be virtue and vice in the outward attire.

I answer that, It is not in the outward things themselves which man uses, that there is vice, but on the part of man who uses them immoderately. This lack of moderation occurs in two ways. First, in comparison with the customs of those among whom one lives; wherefore Augustine says (Confess. iii, 8): "Those offenses which are contrary to the customs of men, are to be avoided according to the customs generally prevailing, so that a thing agreed upon and confirmed by custom or law of any city or nation may not be violated at the lawless pleasure of any, whether citizen or foreigner. For any part, which harmonizeth not with its whole, is offensive." Secondly, the lack of moderation in the use of these things may arise from the inordinate attachment of the user, the result being that a man sometimes takes too much pleasure in using them, either in accordance with the custom of those among whom he dwells or contrary to such custom. Hence Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. iii, 12): "We must avoid excessive pleasure in the use of things, for it leads not only wickedly to abuse the customs of those among whom we dwell, but frequently to exceed their bounds, so that, whereas it lay hidden, while under the restraint of established morality, it displays its deformity in a most lawless outbreak."

In point of excess, this inordinate attachment occurs in three ways. First when a man seeks glory from excessive attention to dress; in so far as dress and such like things are a kind of ornament. Hence Gregory says (Hom. xl in Ev.): "There are some who think that attention to finery and costly dress is no sin. Surely, if this were no fault, the word of God would not say so expressly that the rich man who was tortured in hell had been clothed in purple and fine linen. No one, forsooth, seeks costly apparel" (such, namely, as exceeds his estate) "save for vainglory." Secondly, when a man seeks sensuous pleasure from excessive attention to dress, in so far as dress is directed to the body's comfort. Thirdly, when a man is too solicitous in his attention to outward apparel.

Accordingly Andronicus reckons three virtues in connection with outward attire; namely "humility," which excludes the seeking of glory, wherefore he says that humility is "the habit of avoiding excessive expenditure and parade"; "contentment" , which excludes the seeking of sensuous pleasure, wherefore he says that "contentedness is the habit that makes a man satisfied with what is suitable, and enables him to determine what is becoming in his manner of life" (according to the saying of the Apostle, 1 Tim. 6:8): "Having food and wherewith to be covered, with these let us be content;"---and "simplicity," which excludes excessive solicitude about such things, wherefore he says that "simplicity is a habit that makes a man contented with what he has."

In the point of deficiency there may be inordinate attachment in two ways. First, through a man's neglect to give the requisite study or trouble to the use of outward apparel. Wherefore the Philosopher says (Ethic. vii, 7) that "it is a mark of effeminacy to let one's cloak trail on the ground to avoid the trouble of lifting it up." Secondly, by seeking glory from the very lack of attention to outward attire. Hence Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte ii, 12) that "not only the glare and pomp of outward things, but even dirt and the weeds of mourning may be a subject of ostentation, all the more dangerous as being a decoy under the guise of God's service"; and the Philosopher says (Ethic. iv, 7) that "both excess and inordinate defect are a subject of ostentation."

Reply to Objection 1: Although outward attire does not come from nature, it belongs to natural reason to moderate it; so that we are naturally inclined to be the recipients of the virtue that moderates outward raiment.

Reply to Objection 2: Those who are placed in a position of dignity, or again the ministers of the altar, are attired in more costly apparel than others, not for the sake of their own glory, but to indicate the excellence of their office or of the Divine worship: wherefore this is not sinful in them. Hence Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. iii, 12): "Whoever uses outward things in such a way as to exceed the bounds observed by the good people among whom he dwells, either signifies something by so doing, or is guilty of sin, inasmuch as he uses these things for sensual pleasure or ostentation."

Likewise there may be sin on the part of deficiency: although it is not always a sin to wear coarser clothes than other people. For, if this be done through ostentation or pride, in order to set oneself above others, it is a sin of superstition; whereas, if this be done to tame the flesh, or to humble the spirit, it belongs to the virtue of temperance. Hence Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. iii, 12): "Whoever uses transitory things with greater restraint than is customary with those among whom he dwells, is either temperate or superstitious." Especially, however, is the use of coarse raiment befitting to those who by word and example urge others to repentance, as did the prophets of whom the Apostle is speaking in the passage quoted. Wherefore a gloss on Mt. 3:4, says: "He who preaches penance, wears the garb of penance."

Reply to Objection 3: This outward apparel is an indication of man's estate; wherefore excess, deficiency, and mean therein, are referable to the virtue of truthfulness, which the Philosopher (Ethic. ii, 7) assigns to deeds and words, which are indications of something connected with man's estate.

Articulus 1

Argumentum 1

Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod circa exteriorem ornatum non possit esse virtus et vitium. Exterior enim ornatus non est in nobis a natura, unde et secundum diversitatem temporum et locorum variantur.

Unde Augustinus dicit, in III de doct. Christ., quod talares et manicatas tunicas habere apud veteres Romanos flagitium erat, nunc autem honesto loco natis non eas habere flagitium est.

Sed sicut philosophus dicit, in II ethic., naturalis inest nobis aptitudo ad virtutes.

Ergo circa huiusmodi non est virtus et vitium.

Argumentum 2

Praeterea, si circa exteriorem cultum esset virtus et vitium, oporteret quod superfluitas in talibus esset vitiosa, et etiam defectus vitiosus. Sed superfluitas in cultu exteriori non videtur esse vitiosa, quia etiam sacerdotes et ministri altaris in sacro ministerio pretiosissimis vestibus utuntur.

Similiter etiam defectus in talibus non videtur esse vitiosus, quia in laudem quorundam dicitur, Heb. XI, circuierunt in melotis et in pellibus caprinis.

Non ergo videtur quod in talibus possit esse virtus et vitium.

Argumentum 3

Praeterea, omnis virtus aut est theologica, aut moralis, aut intellectualis. Sed circa huiusmodi non consistit virtus intellectualis, quae perficit in aliqua cognitione veritatis.

Similiter etiam nec est ibi virtus theologica, quae habet deum pro obiecto. Nec etiam est ibi aliqua virtutum Moralium quas philosophus tangit.

Ergo videtur quod circa huiusmodi cultum non possit esse virtus et vitium.

Sed Contra

Sed contra, honestas ad virtutem pertinet. Sed in exteriori cultu consideratur quaedam honestas, dicit enim Ambrosius, in I de offic., decor corporis non sit affectatus, sed naturalis; simplex, neglectus magis quam expeditus; non pretiosis et albentibus adiutus vestimentis, sed communibus, ut honestati vel necessitati nihil desit, nihil accedat nitori.

Ergo in exteriori cultu potest esse virtus et vitium.

Corpus

Respondeo dicendum quod in ipsis rebus exterioribus quibus homo utitur, non est aliquod vitium, sed ex parte hominis qui immoderate utitur eis. Quae quidem immoderantia potest esse dupliciter. Uno quidem modo, per comparationem ad consuetudinem hominum cum quibus aliquis vivit.

Unde dicit Augustinus, in III confess., quae contra mores hominum sunt flagitia, pro morum diversitate vitanda sunt, ut pactum inter se civitatis et gentis consuetudine vel lege firmatum, nulla civis aut peregrini libidine violetur. Turpis enim est omnis pars universo suo non congruens.

Alio modo potest esse immoderatio in usu talium rerum ex inordinato affectu utentis, ex quo quandoque contingit quod homo nimis libidinose talibus utatur, sive secundum consuetudinem eorum cum quibus vivit, sive etiam praeter eorum consuetudinem.

Unde Augustinus dicit, in III de doct. Christ., in usu rerum abesse oportet libidinem, quae non solum ipsa eorum inter quos vivit consuetudine nequiter abutitur; sed etiam saepe fines eius egressa, foeditatem suam, quae inter claustra morum solemnium latitabat, flagitiosissima eruptione manifestat.

Contingit autem ista inordinatio affectus tripliciter, quantum ad superabundantiam. Uno modo, per hoc quod aliquis ex superfluo cultu vestium hominum gloriam quaerit, prout scilicet vestes et alia huiusmodi pertinent ad quendam ornatum.

Unde Gregorius dicit, in quadam homilia, sunt nonnulli qui cultum subtilium pretiosarumque vestium non putant esse peccatum. Quod videlicet si culpa non esset nequaquam sermo dei tam vigilanter exprimeret quod dives qui torquebatur apud inferos, bysso et purpura indutus fuisset. Nemo quippe vestimenta pretiosa, scilicet excedentia proprium statum, nisi ad inanem gloriam quaerit. Alio modo, secundum quod homo per superfluum cultum vestium quaerit delicias, secundum quod vestis ordinatur ad corporis fomentum. Tertio modo, secundum quod nimiam sollicitudinem apponit ad exteriorem vestium cultum, etiam si non sit aliqua inordinatio ex parte finis.

Et secundum hoc, Andronicus ponit tres virtutes circa exteriorem cultum. Scilicet, humilitatem, quae excludit intentionem gloriae.

Unde dicit quod humilitas est habitus non superabundans in sumptibus et praeparationibus. Et per se sufficientiam, quae excludit intentionem deliciarum. Unde dicit quod per se sufficientia est habitus contentus quibus oportet, et determinativa eorum quae ad vivere convenit (secundum illud apostoli, I ad Tim. Ult., habentes alimenta et quibus tegamur, his contenti simus)p et simplicitatem, quae excludit superfluam sollicitudinem talium.

Unde dicit quod simplicitas est habitus contentus his quae contingunt.

Ex parte autem defectus similiter potest esse duplex inordinatio secundum affectum. Uno quidem modo, ex negligentia hominis qui non adhibet studium vel laborem ad hoc quod exteriori cultu utatur secundum quod oportet.

Unde philosophus dicit, in VII ethic., quod ad mollitiem pertinet quod aliquis trahat vestimentum per terram, ut non laboret elevando ipsum.

Alio modo, ex eo quod ipsum defectum exterioris cultus ad gloriam ordinant.

Unde dicit Augustinus, in libro de serm. Dom. In monte, non in solo rerum corporearum nitore atque pompa, sed etiam in ipsis sordibus et luctuosis esse posse iactantiam, et eo periculosiorem quo sub nomine servitutis dei decipit.

Et philosophus dicit, in IV ethic., quod superabundantia et inordinatus defectus ad iactantiam pertinet.

Ad 1

Ad primum ergo dicendum quod, quamvis ipse cultus exterior non sit a natura, tamen ad naturalem rationem pertinet ut exteriorem cultum moderetur. Et secundum hoc, innati sumus hanc virtutem suscipere, quae exteriorem cultum moderatur.

Ad 2

Ad secundum dicendum quod illi qui in dignitatibus constituuntur, vel etiam ministri altaris, pretiosioribus vestibus quam ceteri induuntur, non propter sui gloriam, sed ad significandam excellentiam sui ministerii vel cultus divini.

Et ideo in eis non est vitiosum.

Unde Augustinus dicit, in III de doct. Christ., quisquis sic utitur exterioribus rebus ut metas consuetudinis bonorum inter quos versatur excedat, aut aliquid significat, aut flagitiosus est, dum scilicet propter delicias vel ostentationem talibus utitur.

Similiter etiam ex parte defectus contingit esse peccatum, non tamen semper qui vilioribus quam ceteri vestibus utitur, peccat. Si enim hoc faciat propter iactantiam vel superbiam, ut se ceteris praeferat, vitium superstitionis est. Si autem hoc faciat propter macerationem carnis vel humiliationem spiritus, ad virtutem temperantiae pertinet.

Unde Augustinus dicit, in III de doct. Christ., quisquis restrictius rebus utitur quam se habeant mores eorum cum quibus vivit, aut temperans aut superstitiosus est.

Praecipue autem competit vilibus vestimentis uti his qui alios verbo et exemplo ad poenitentiam hortantur, sicut fuerunt prophetae, de quibus apostolus ibi loquitur. Unde quaedam Glossa dicit, Matth. III, qui poenitentiam praedicat, habitum poenitentiae praetendit.

Ad 3

Ad tertium dicendum quod huiusmodi exterior cultus indicium quoddam est conditionis humanae. Et ideo excessus et defectus et medium in talibus possunt reduci ad virtutem veritatis, quam philosophus ponit circa facta et dicta quibus aliquid de statu hominis significatur.