Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Objection 1: It would seem that a religious order which is devoted to the contemplative life is not more excellent than one which is given to the active life. For it is said (Extra, de Regular. et Transeunt. ad Relig., cap. Licet), quoting the words of Innocent III: "Even as a greater good is preferred to a lesser, so the common profit takes precedence of private profit: and in this case teaching is rightly preferred to silence, responsibility to contemplation, work to rest." Now the religious order which is directed to the greater good is better. Therefore it would seem that those religious orders that are directed to the active life are more excellent than those which are directed to the contemplative life.

Objection 2: Further, every religious order is directed to the perfection of charity, as stated above (Articles 1,2). Now a gloss on Heb. 12:4, "For you have not yet resisted unto blood," says: "In this life there is no more perfect love than that to which the holy martyrs attained, who fought against sin unto blood." Now to fight unto blood is becoming those religious who are directed to military service, and yet this pertains to the active life. Therefore it would seem that religious orders of this kind are the most excellent.

Objection 3: Further, seemingly the stricter a religious order is, the more excellent it is. But there is no reason why certain religious orders directed to the active life should not be of stricter observance than those directed to the contemplative life. Therefore they are more excellent.

On the contrary, our Lord said (Lk. 10:42) that the "best part" was Mary's, by whom the contemplative life is signified.

I answer that, As stated above (Article 1), the difference between one religious order and another depends chiefly on the end, and secondarily on the exercise. And since one thing cannot be said to be more excellent than another save in respect of that in which it differs therefrom, it follows that the excellence of one religious order over another depends chiefly on their ends, and secondarily on their respective exercises. Nevertheless each of these comparisons is considered in a different way. For the comparison with respect to the end is absolute, since the end is sought for its own sake; whereas the comparison with respect to exercise is relative, since exercise is sought not for its own sake, but for the sake of the end. Hence a religious order is preferable to another, if it be directed to an end that is absolutely more excellent either because it is a greater good or because it is directed to more goods. If, however, the end be the same, the excellence of one religious order over another depends secondarily, not on the amount of exercise, but on the proportion of the exercise to the end in view. Wherefore in the Conferences of the Fathers (Coll. ii, 2) Blessed Antony is quoted, as preferring discretion whereby a man moderates all his actions, to fastings, watchings, and all such observances.

Accordingly we must say that the work of the active life is twofold. one proceeds from the fulness of contemplation, such as teaching and preaching. Wherefore Gregory says (Hom. v in Ezech.) that the words of Ps. 144:7, "They shall publish the memory of . . . Thy sweetness," refer "to perfect men returning from their contemplation." And this work is more excellent than simple contemplation. For even as it is better to enlighten than merely to shine, so is it better to give to others the fruits of one's contemplation than merely to contemplate. The other work of the active life consists entirely in outward occupation, for instance almsgiving, receiving guests, and the like, which are less excellent than the works of contemplation, except in cases of necessity, as stated above (Question 182, Article 1). Accordingly the highest place in religious orders is held by those which are directed to teaching and preaching, which, moreover, are nearest to the episcopal perfection, even as in other things "the end of that which is first is in conjunction with the beginning of that which is second," as Dionysius states (Div. Nom. vii). The second place belongs to those which are directed to contemplation, and the third to those which are occupied with external actions.

Moreover, in each of these degrees it may be noted that one religious order excels another through being directed to higher action in the same genus; thus among the works of the active life it is better to ransom captives than to receive guests, and among the works of the contemplative life prayer is better than study. Again one will excel another if it be directed to more of these actions than another, or if it have statutes more adapted to the attainment of the end in view.

Reply to Objection 1: This Decretal refers to the active life as directed to the salvation of souls.

Reply to Objection 2: Those religious orders that are established for the purpose of military service aim more directly at shedding the enemy's blood than at the shedding of their own, which latter is more properly competent to martyrs. Yet there is no reason why religious of this description should not acquire the merit of martyrdom in certain cases, and in this respect stand higher than other religious; even as in some cases the works of the active life take precedence of contemplation.

Reply to Objection 3: Strictness of observances, as the Blessed Antony remarks (Conferences of the Fathers; Coll. ii, 2), is not the chief object of commendation in a religious order; and it is written (Is. 58:5): "Is this such a fast as I have chosen, for a man to afflict his soul for a day?" Nevertheless it is adopted in religious life as being necessary for taming the flesh, "which if done without discretion, is liable to make us fail altogether," as the Blessed Antony observes. Wherefore a religious order is not more excellent through having stricter observances, but because its observances are directed by greater discretion to the end of religion. Thus the taming of the flesh is more efficaciously directed to continence by means of abstinence in meat and drink, which pertain to hunger and thirst, than by the privation of clothing, which pertains to cold and nakedness, or by bodily labor.

Articulus 6

Argumentum 1

Ad sextum sic proceditur. Videtur quod religio quae vacat vitae contemplativae, non sit potior ea quae vacat operationibus vitae activae.

Dicitur enim extra, de regularibus et transeunt. Ad relig., cap. Licet, sicut maius bonum minori bono praeponitur, ita communis utilitas speciali utilitati praefertur, et in hoc casu recte praeponitur doctrina silentio, sollicitudo contemplationi, et labor quieti.

Sed religio est melior quae ad maius bonum ordinatur. Ergo videtur quod religiones quae ordinantur ad vitam activam, sint potiores illis quae ordinantur ad vitam contemplativam.

Argumentum 2

Praeterea, omnis religio ordinatur ad perfectionem caritatis, ut supra habitum est.

Sed super illud Heb. XII, nondum usque ad sanguinem restitistis, dicit Glossa, perfectior in hac vita dilectio nulla est ea ad quam sancti martyres pervenerunt, qui contra peccatum usque ad sanguinem certaverunt.

Certare autem usque ad sanguinem competit religionibus quae ad militiam ordinantur, quae tamen pertinent ad vitam activam.

Ergo videtur quod huiusmodi religiones sint potissimae.

Argumentum 3

Praeterea, tanto videtur esse aliqua religio perfectior, quanto est arctior. Sed nihil prohibet aliquas religiones ad vitam activam ordinatas esse arctioris observantiae quam illae quae ordinantur ad vitam contemplativam. Ergo sunt potiores.

Sed Contra

Sed contra est quod dominus, Luc. X, dicit optimam partem esse mariae, per quam vita contemplativa significatur.

Corpus

Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, differentia unius religionis ad aliam principaliter quidem attenditur ex parte finis, secundario autem ex parte exercitii.

Et quia non potest aliquid dici altero potius nisi secundum id in quo ab eo differt, ideo excellentia unius religionis super aliam principaliter quidem attenditur secundum religionis finem, secundario autem secundum exercitium.

Diversimode tamen secundum utrumque comparatio attenditur, nam comparatio quae est secundum finem est absoluta, eo quod finis propter se quaeritur; comparatio autem quae est secundum exercitium, est respectiva, quia exercitium non quaeritur propter se, sed propter finem. Et ideo illa religio alteri praefertur quae ordinatur ad finem absolute potiorem, vel quia est maius bonum; vel quia ad plura bona ordinatur. Si vero sit finis idem, secundario attenditur praeeminentia religionis, non secundum quantitatem exercitii, sed secundum proportionem eius ad finem intentum.

Unde et in collationibus patrum introducitur sententia beati Antonii, qui praetulit discretionem, per quam aliquis omnia moderatur, et ieiuniis et vigiliis et omnibus huiusmodi observantiis. Sic ergo dicendum est quod opus vitae activae est duplex. Unum quidem quod ex plenitudine contemplationis derivatur, sicut doctrina et praedicatio.

Unde et Gregorius dicit, in V homil. Super Ezech., quod de perfectis viris post contemplationem suam redeuntibus dicitur, memoriam suavitatis tuae eructabunt.

Et hoc praefertur simplici contemplationi. Sicut enim maius est illuminare quam lucere solum, ita maius est contemplata aliis tradere quam solum contemplari. Aliud autem est opus activae vitae quod totaliter consistit in occupatione exteriori, sicut eleemosynas dare, hospites recipere, et alia huiusmodi. Quae sunt minora operibus contemplationis, nisi forte in casu necessitatis, ut ex supra dictis patet.

Sic ergo summum gradum in religionibus tenent quae ordinantur ad docendum et praedicandum. Quae et propinquissimae sunt perfectioni episcoporum, sicut et in aliis rebus fines primorum coniunguntur principiis secundorum, ut dionysius dicit, VII cap. De div. Nom..

Secundum autem gradum tenent illae quae ordinantur ad contemplationem. Tertius est earum quae occupantur circa exteriores actiones. In singulis autem horum graduum potest attendi praeeminentia secundum quod una religio ordinatur ad altiorem actum in eodem genere, sicut inter opera activae, potius est redimere captivos quam recipere hospites; et in operibus contemplativae, potior est oratio quam lectio.

Potest etiam attendi praeeminentia, si una earum ad plura horum ordinetur quam alia, vel si convenientiora statuta habeat ad finem propositum consequendum.

Ad 1

Ad primum ergo dicendum quod decretalis illa loquitur de vita activa prout ordinatur ad salutem animarum.

Ad 2

Ad secundum dicendum quod religiones quae instituuntur propter militiam, directius ordinantur ad hoc quod effundant sanguinem hostium, quam ad hoc quod eorum sanguis fundatur, quod proprie martyribus competit. Nihil tamen prohibet huiusmodi religiosos in aliquo casu meritum martyrii consequi, et in hoc praeferri aliis religiosis, sicut et opera activa interdum in aliquo casu praeferuntur contemplationi.

Ad 3

Ad tertium dicendum quod arctitudo observantiarum non est id quod praecipue in religione commendatur, ut beatus Antonius dicit.

Et Isaiae LVIII dicitur, nunquid hoc est ieiunium quod elegi, per diem affligere animam suam? assumitur tamen in religione ut necessaria ad carnis macerationem, quae, si sine discretione fit, periculum deficiendi habet annexum, sicut beatus Antonius dicit.

Et ideo non est potior religio ex hoc quod habet arctiores observantias, sed ex hoc quod ex maiori discretione sunt eius observantiae ordinatae ad finem religionis. Sicut ad continentiam efficacius ordinatur maceratio carnis per abstinentiam cibi et potus, quae pertinent ad famem et sitim, quam per subtractionem vestium, quae pertinent ad frigus et nuditatem; et quam per corporalem laborem.