Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Objection 1: It would seem that the virtue of penance is not a species of justice. For justice is not a theological but a moral virtue, as was shown in the 2.2, Question 62, Article 3. But penance seems to be a theological virtue, since God is its object, for it makes satisfaction to God, to Whom, moreover, it reconciles the sinner. Therefore it seems that penance is not a species of justice.

Objection 2: Further, since justice is a moral virtue it observes the mean. Now penance does not observe the mean, but rather goes to the extreme, according to Jer. 6:26: "Make thee mourning as for an only son, a bitter lamentation." Therefore penance is not a species of justice.

Objection 3: Further, there are two species of justice, as stated in Ethic. v, 4, viz. "distributive" and "commutative." But penance does not seem to be contained under either of them. Therefore it seems that penance is not a species of justice.

Objection 4: Further, a gloss on Lk. 6:21, "Blessed are ye that weep now," says: "It is prudence that teaches us the unhappiness of earthly things and the happiness of heavenly things." But weeping is an act of penance. Therefore penance is a species of prudence rather than of justice.

On the contrary, Augustine says in De Poenitentia : "Penance is the vengeance of the sorrowful, ever punishing in them what they are sorry for having done." But to take vengeance is an act of justice, wherefore Tully says (De Inv. Rhet. ii) that one kind of justice is called vindictive. Therefore it seems that penance is a species of justice.

I answer that, As stated above (Article 1, ad 2) penance is a special virtue not merely because it sorrows for evil done (since charity would suffice for that), but also because the penitent grieves for the sin he has committed, inasmuch as it is an offense against God, and purposes to amend. Now amendment for an offense committed against anyone is not made by merely ceasing to offend, but it is necessary to make some kind of compensation, which obtains in offenses committed against another, just as retribution does, only that compensation is on the part of the offender, as when he makes satisfaction, whereas retribution is on the part of the person offended against. Each of these belongs to the matter of justice, because each is a kind of commutation. Wherefore it is evident that penance, as a virtue, is a part of justice.

It must be observed, however, that according to the Philosopher (Ethic. v, 6) a thing is said to be just in two ways, simply and relatively. A thing is just simply when it is between equals, since justice is a kind of equality, and he calls this the politic or civil just, because all citizens are equal, in the point of being immediately under the ruler, retaining their freedom. But a thing is just relatively when it is between parties of whom one is subject to the other, as a servant under his master, a son under his father, a wife under her husband. It is this kind of just that we consider in penance. Wherefore the penitent has recourse to God with a purpose of amendment, as a servant to his master, according to Ps. 122:2: "Behold, as the eyes of servants are on the hands of their masters . . . so are our eyes unto the Lord our God, until He have mercy on us"; and as a son to his father, according to Lk. 15:21: "Father, I have sinned against heaven and before thee"; and as a wife to her husband, according to Jer. 3:1: "Thou hast prostituted thyself to many lovers; nevertheless return to Me, saith the Lord."

Reply to Objection 1: As stated in Ethic. v, 1, justice is a virtue towards another person, and the matter of justice is not so much the person to whom justice is due as the thing which is the subject of distribution or commutation. Hence the matter of penance is not God, but human acts, whereby God is offended or appeased; whereas God is as one to whom justice is due. Wherefore it is evident that penance is not a theological virtue, because God is not its matter or object.

Reply to Objection 2: The mean of justice is the equality that is established between those between whom justice is, as stated in Ethic. v. But in certain cases perfect equality cannot be established, on account of the excellence of one, as between father and son, God and man, as the Philosopher states (Ethic. viii, 14), wherefore in such cases, he that falls short of the other must do whatever he can. Yet this will not be sufficient simply, but only according to the acceptance of the higher one; and this is what is meant by ascribing excess to penance.

Reply to Objection 3: As there is a kind of commutation in favors, when, to wit, a man gives thanks for a favor received, so also is there commutation in the matter of offenses, when, on account of an offense committed against another, a man is either punished against his will, which pertains to vindictive justice, or makes amends of his own accord, which belongs to penance, which regards the person of the sinner, just as vindictive justice regards the person of the judge. Therefore it is evident that both are comprised under commutative justice.

Reply to Objection 4: Although penance is directly a species of justice, yet, in a fashion, it comprises things pertaining to all the virtues; for inasmuch as there is a justice of man towards God, it must have a share in matter pertaining to the theological virtues, the object of which is God. Consequently penance comprises faith in Christ's Passion, whereby we are cleansed of our sins, hope for pardon, and hatred of vice, which pertains to charity. Inasmuch as it is a moral virtue, it has a share of prudence, which directs all the moral virtues: but from the very nature of justice, it has not only something belonging to justice, but also something belonging to temperance and fortitude, inasmuch as those things which cause pleasure, and which pertain to temperance, and those which cause terror, which fortitude moderates, are objects of commutative justice. Accordingly it belongs to justice both to abstain from pleasure, which belongs to temperance, and to bear with hardships, which belongs to fortitude.

Articulus 3

Argumentum 1

Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod virtus poenitentiae non sit species iustitiae. Iustitia enim non est virtus theologica sed moralis, ut in secunda parte patet.

Poenitentia autem videtur virtus esse theologica, quia habet deum pro obiecto, satisfacit enim deo, cui etiam reconciliat peccatorem.

Ergo videtur quod poenitentia non sit pars iustitiae.

Argumentum 2

Praeterea, iustitia, cum sit virtus moralis, consistit in medio.

Sed poenitentia non consistit in medio, sed in quodam excessu, secundum illud Ierem. VI, luctum unigeniti fac tibi, planctum amarum.

Ergo poenitentia non est species iustitiae.

Argumentum 3

Praeterea, duae sunt species iustitiae, ut dicitur in V ethic., scilicet distributiva et commutativa.

Sed sub neutra videtur poenitentia contineri. Ergo videtur quod poenitentia non sit species iustitiae.

Argumentum 4

Praeterea, super illud Luc. VI, beati qui nunc fletis, dicit Glossa, ecce prudentia, per quam ostenditur quam haec terrena sint misera, et quam beata caelestia.

Sed flere est actus poenitentiae. Ergo poenitentia magis est prudentiae quam iustitiae.

Sed Contra

Sed contra est quod Augustinus dicit, in libro de poenitentia, poenitentia est quaedam dolentis vindicta, semper puniens in se quod dolet se commisisse.

Sed facere vindictam pertinet ad iustitiam, unde tullius, in sua rhetorica, ponit vindicativam unam speciem iustitiae.

Ergo videtur quod poenitentia sit species iustitiae.

Corpus

Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, poenitentia non habet quod sit virtus specialis ex hoc solo quod dolet de malo perpetrato, ad hoc enim sufficeret caritas, sed ex eo quod poenitens dolet de peccato commisso inquantum est offensa dei, cum emendationis proposito. Emendatio autem offensae contra aliquem commissae fit non per solam cessationem offensae, sed exigitur ulterius quaedam recompensatio, quae habet locum in offensis in alterum commissis sicut et retributio, nisi quod recompensatio est ex parte eius qui offendit, ut puta cum satisfactione; retributio autem est ex parte eius in quem fuit offensa commissa. Utrumque autem ad materiam iustitiae pertinet, quia utrumque est commutatio quaedam. Unde manifestum est quod poenitentia, secundum quod est virtus, est pars iustitiae.

Sciendum tamen quod, secundum philosophum, in V ethic., dupliciter dicitur iustum, scilicet simpliciter, et secundum quid.

Simpliciter quidem iustum est inter aequales, eo quod iustitia est aequalitas quaedam. Quod ipse vocat iustum politicum vel civile, eo quod omnes cives aequales sunt, quantum ad hoc quod immediate sunt sub principe, sicut liberi existentes. Iustum autem secundum quid dicitur quod est inter illos quorum unus est sub potestate alterius, sicut servus sub domino, filius sub patre, uxor sub viro.

Et tale iustum consideratur in poenitentia. Unde poenitens recurrit ad deum, cum emendationis proposito, sicut servus ad dominum, secundum illud Psalmi, sicut oculi servorum in manibus dominorum suorum, ita oculi nostri ad dominum deum nostrum, donec misereatur nostri; et sicut filius ad patrem, secundum illud Luc. XV, pater, peccavi in caelum et coram te; et sicut uxor ad virum, secundum illud Ierem. III, fornicata es cum amatoribus multis, tamen revertere ad me, dicit dominus.

Ad 1

Ad primum ergo dicendum quod, sicut in V ethic. Dicitur, iustitia est ad alterum.

Ille autem ad quem est iustitia, non dicitur esse materia iustitiae, sed magis res quae distribuuntur vel commutantur. Unde et materia poenitentiae non est deus, sed actus humani quibus deus offenditur vel placatur, sed deus se habet sicut ille ad quem est iustitia. Ex quo patet quod poenitentia non est virtus theologica, quia non habet deum pro materia vel pro obiecto.

Ad 2

Ad secundum dicendum quod medium iustitiae est aequalitas quae constituitur inter illos inter quos est iustitia, ut dicitur in V ethic..

In quibusdam autem non potest perfecta aequalitas constitui, propter alterius excellentiam, sicut inter filium et patrem, inter hominem et deum, ut philosophus dicit, in VIII ethic..

Unde in talibus ille qui est deficiens, debet facere quidquid potest, nec tamen hoc erit sufficiens, sed solum secundum acceptationem superioris.

Et hoc significatur per excessum qui attribuitur poenitentiae.

Ad 3

Ad tertium dicendum quod, sicut est commutatio quaedam in beneficiis, cum scilicet aliquis pro beneficio recepto gratiam rependit, ita etiam est commutatio in offensis, cum aliquis pro offensa in alterum commissa vel invitus punitur, quod pertinet ad vindicativam iustitiam; vel voluntarie recompensat emendam, quod pertinet ad poenitentiam, quae respicit personam peccatoris sicut iustitia vindicativa personam iudicis. Unde manifestum est quod utraque sub iustitia commutativa continetur.

Ad 4

Ad quartum dicendum quod poenitentia, licet directe sit species iustitiae, comprehendit tamen quodammodo ea quae pertinent ad omnes virtutes. Inquantum enim est iustitia quaedam hominis ad deum, oportet quod participet ea quae sunt virtutum theologicarum, quae habent deum pro obiecto. Unde poenitentia est cum fide passionis christi, per quam iustificamur a peccatis; et cum spe veniae; et cum odio vitiorum, quod pertinet ad caritatem inquantum vero est virtus moralis, participat aliquid prudentiae, quae est directiva omnium virtutum Moralium.

Sed ex ipsa ratione iustitiae non solum habet id quod iustitiae est, sed etiam ea quae sunt temperantiae et fortitudinis, inquantum scilicet ea quae delectationem causant ad temperantiam pertinentem, vel terrorem incutiunt, quem fortitudo moderatur, in commutationem iustitiae veniunt. Et secundum hoc ad iustitiam pertinet et abstinere a delectabilibus, quod pertinet ad temperantiam; et sustinere dura, quod pertinet ad fortitudinem.