De Occultis Operibus Naturae

Ad Quemdam Militem Ultramontanum

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Philosophy of The Catholic University of America in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

By

JOSEPH BERNARD McALLISTER, M.A., S.T.B.,

of

The Society of Saint Sulpice

THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PRESS

WASHINGTON, D. C.

1939

NIHIL OBSTAT:

IGNATIUS H. SMITH, O.P., PH.D.,

Censor Deputatus

IMPRIMATUR:

MICHAEL J. CURLEY, D.D.,

Archiepiscopus Baltimorensis

Copyright 1939, by

THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PRESS

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

BY THE WATKINS PRINTING CO., BALTIMORE

TO MY

MOTHER AND FATHER

PREFACE

Astrology is not an entirely dead issue nor is interest in it confined to the research scholar. Within the past year the Washington Astrological Society held its first meeting in Washington, D. C., which was attended by forty-five persons. The temporary chairman admitted having taught 300 "Washingtonians the principles of scientific astrology, including doctors, lawyers, Government employees, nurses, a business executive or two and even a psychiatrist." That array of moderns, mustered in one city, suggests that even to-day a soldier might be found who would like to know what marvels the stars can really perform. Should such a one appear he would be the twentieth century counterpart of "that certain knight from beyond the mountains" who addressed a question along those lines to Thomas Aquinas. That foremost Dominican philosopher and theologian, occupied with his work and his controversies at the University of Paris, was not too busy to reply with a letter, which is really a small treatise and which has come to be known as De occultis operibus naturae ad quemdam militem ultramontanum.

             To date the letter has not been translated. But more important still, to the writer's knowledge, it has not been analyzed in detail and its doctrine adequately projected against the historical setting and general Thomistic teaching. It will be the purpose of this dissertation, after inquiring into the letter's title and authenticity, its date of composition and place in the catalogues of manuscripts, and stating other general characteristics of the letter (Part I), to render into English the opusculum which shall be referred to henceforth as De occultis (Part II). The historical background (Part III) furnishes the necessary basis for a proper interpretation of the letter. It sketches the scene at the University of Paris and shows how Thomas had to meet, on the one hand, the attacks of Latin Averroism and, on the other, the opposition of a strong reactionary Augustinianism, which viewed askance the rationalistic temper of the times, as chiefly manifested in the pursuit of science. That science in the thirteenth century meant something other than twentieth century science is clear when we see that it included astrology. Thus De occultis, dealing with the causality of heavenly bodies, takes its place as a commentary on the times, and so must be pressed to contribute Thomas' teaching and attitude. And the better to appreciate Aquinas we compare him with William of Auvergne and Albert the Great. Thus prepared for, Part IV summarizes and analyzes De occultis. While specifically replying to the question of what causes the marvelous effects of necromantic images and formulas, the letter is fundamentally a study of efficient causes in general, reaching from the lowliest element up to Divinity itself, which is the source of all causal activity. Part V attempts to integrate the philosophical teaching of the letter about these different kinds of causes: elements, compounds, man, heavenly bodies, separated substances (i. e. angels, good and bad), and God. First is given what can be gathered from De occultis and then this is compared with Thomas' doctrine as it appears in his other writings. The purpose is to ascertain Thomas' consistency, but the result is an exposition of Thomas' concept of the various efficient causes at work in the universe and a clearer insight into his powers as an integrator and systematizer. His world, in which all these causes are functioning, is not disparate but is truly a universe achieving unity on the basis of causal interdependence, a universe of individual beings, exercising efficiency, yet all working towards God even as they operate ultimately because of Him.

             The method followed has been consistently one of exposition. This has been the author's sole preoccupation--to understand Thomas' point of view in De occultis and to supplement it by recourse to his authentic writings. As much as possible Thomas has been allowed to speak for himself, in his own words, translated in the text but as given by foot notes in the original Latin. That there is no formal criticism of Aquinas' cosmology or science or especially of his acceptance of the contemporary views about heavenly bodies ought not to be interpreted as meaning that they are above criticism or that the writer subscribes to them. Criticism can only be valid when it springs from a comprehensive understanding of Thomas' position, and the author's present purpose is simply to furnish some light in that direction.

             In addition to the Englished version of an interesting thirteenth century letter, the contribution of this study will be found to consist in the insight which it gives into Thomistic doctrine as it is seen in action, we may say, as being applied to a specific problem, which was of practical as well as academic interest in its day. It contributes to our appreciation of Thomas as friend and philosopher and teacher and, perhaps, even as the humble saint. It shows a man, with his system, who not only had the ideal of a universal science but, on the conviction that there was a universal science, turned to the problems of life and found harmonious placement of them in his all-embracive synthesis.

             Another result of this study is to confirm the date of 1269-1272, with the probabilities suggesting something closer to 1272 than to 1269, as the period of the letter's composition. In every instance which occurred to make the time of composition a problem, it was solved on the acceptance of this date. On the other hand, in no instance did the supposition of this date bring the contents of the letter into conflict either with other compositions of Thomas which are more certainly dated or with the historical background. On the theory of being written sometime after 1270, De occultis fits nicely both into the general Thomistic synthesis and into the historical picture. Furthermore, this date goes a long way to explain certain obvious lacunae in the letter as well as the emphasis it lays on various doctrines.

             The writer is happy to take this occasion to express his gratitude to the Very Reverend Ignatius Smith, O.P., S.T.Lr., Ph.D., LL.D., under whose guidance this dissertation was written. Ungrudging of his time he has been ready always to advise and encourage. Likewise the writer acknowledges his indebtedness to those professors whose personal interest and example have been at once a comfort and a stimulus. He also makes grateful acknowledgment to the Reverend Doctor Jules A. Baisnée, S.S., and the Reverend Doctor Charles A. Hart for their careful reading of the manuscript and to the Very Reverend Doctor John J. Jepson, S. S., and Mr. J. Vincent Sullivan for their invaluable aid in preparing it for printing. In particular he thanks his Provincial, the Very Reverend John F. Fenlon, S.S., D.D., for the opportunity to pursue graduate studies.

A LETTER OF THOMAS AQUINAS TO A CERTAIN KNIGHT BEYOND THE MOUNTAINS ON THE OCCULT WORKINGS OF NATURE OR CONCERNING THE CAUSALITY OF HEAVENLY BODIES

1. INTRODUCTION

             Since in some natural bodies certain natural activities appear whose principles cannot be understood, your honor has asked that I write what I think about them.

2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

             We see indeed that a body follows the movements of the elements governing it. A stone, for example, is moved towards the center (of the earth) according to the property of earth dominant in it. Metals also have the power of cooling according to the property of water. Therefore all actions and movements whatsoever of bodies composed of elements take place according to the property and power of the elements of which such bodies are made.

             Now such actions and movements have a clear origin, about which there arises no doubt. But there are some workings of these bodies which cannot be caused by the powers of the elements: for example, the magnet attracts iron, and certain medicines purge particular humors, in definite parts of the body. Actions of this sort, therefore, must be traced to higher principles.

             We must now consider that an agent of a lower rank acts or is moved according to the power of a superior agent in two ways: one way in so far as the action proceeds from it according to a form and power imparted by a superior agent, as the moon illuminated through light received from the sun. In another way it acts only through the power of the superior agent, without receiving a form for acting. It is moved only through the motion of the superior agent, as a carpenter uses a saw for cutting. The sawing is indeed primarily the work of the artisan but secondarily of the saw in so far as it is moved by the artisan--not because such an action follows upon some form and power which might stay in the saw after the artisan has used it. If, then, elementary bodies share in the actions or movements of superior agents, it ought to be in one or the other of the above mentioned ways; either the actions result from forms and powers implanted by superior agents in the elementary bodies, or the actions merely follow upon the movement of the elementary bodies by the superior agents.

             Superior agents which exceed the nature of elements and elementary bodies are not only heavenly bodies, but also superior separated substances. Each of them produces in inferior bodies actions or movements which do not spring from a form implanted in the inferior bodies, but which come solely from the movement of the superior agents. For the sea, in its ebb and flow, has this motion over and above the property of the element(water) from the power of the moon, not indeed through an implanted form, but through the moon's movement, which agitates the water. Then again necromantic images have effects which do not issue from forms they may have received, but from demons who are active in the images. And we think the same thing sometimes happens through the action of God or the good angels. For the fact, that sick people were cured at the shadow of Peter the Apostle or that some illness is dispelled upon contact with a saint's relics, is not attributable to a form implanted in these bodies, but only to the divine power which uses the bodies for these results.

             It is clear that not all the workings of elementary bodies manifesting occult operations are like these. Firstly, the said workings, since they do not arise from some implanted form, are not found commonly in every individual of the same species: for not every bone nor all the relics of the saints heal upon touch, but those of some at some times. And so neither does every image have effects of this sort, nor does all water flow and ebb according to the movement of the moon. But certain secret workings are found in some bodies which are likewise found in all which are of the same species--for example, every magnet attracts iron. Whence it follows that these (latter) activities arise from an intrinsic principle common to things of the same species. Secondly, activities, which have been mentioned above, do not always proceed from habits of this sort. The evident proof for this is that they do not proceed from a power residing and permanent in them, but only from the motion of a superior agent--just as the saw does not always cut wood brought into contact with it, but only when it is moved for this purpose by an artisan. Certain occult workings, however, arise from inferior bodies, which whenever they are used, themselves being passive, produce the same effects, as rhubarb always purges a definite humor. And from this it is concluded that the action arises from some power residing and permanent in the body.

3. EXPLANATION

             It remains now to consider what is that permanent intrinsic principle from which such activities proceed. Clearly this principle is some potency: for the internal principle by which an agent acts or suffers action we call a potency. And indeed this potency according as it is referred to the limit of anything's possible activity receives the name and description of power. Now the power which is the principle of such actions and passions is shown to be derived especially from the specific form of a thing; for every accident which is proper to some species, is derived from the essential principles of that species. Hence it is that to explain the characteristic passions of their subjects we take for the cause a definition designating the essential principles of the thing. But the principle of essence and quidditas is a form existing in determinate matter. Therefore such powers ought to proceed from forms of things according as they exist in their own matters.

             Secondly, since the nature of a thing is termed its form and matter, if a power of a thing should not be derived from them, it will not be a power natural to the thing, and consequently no activity or passion proceeding from such a power will be natural. Now such activities which go beyond nature are not abiding--for example, that water when heated heats; but secret activities of which we are now speaking are always the same, or as often as possible. Hence the conclusion that powers which are the principles of these actions are essential and proceed from a form according as it exists in such matter.

             The Platonists indeed were wont to attribute the principle of substantial forms to separated substances which they called species or ideas, the individual representations of which they said were natural forms implanted in matter. But this principle cannot be sufficient. First, the thing making ought to be like the thing made. Now that which comes about in natural things is not form, but a mixture of matter and form; for to this purpose something is made, that it be. Properly it is said to be the subsistent composite whereas the form is said to be that whereby something is. Therefore, that which comes to be is not rightly form but a composite and that which makes natural things to be is not only form but the composite.

             Secondly, forms existing apart from matter ought to be unmoved, because movement is an act of something in potency, which is the case with prime matter. And so these forms ought to be unchangeable. Now from a cause that is always the same proceed forms that are always the same. But this is not evident in the forms of inferior bodies, because of the coming-to-be and passing-away of these bodies. Therefore, of these corruptible bodies the principles of their forms are heavenly bodies, which, being different according to their rise and fall, cause coming-to-be and passing-away in inferior bodies.

             Nevertheless, such forms are derived from separated substances as first principles, which, through the power and movement of heavenly bodies, impress upon corporeal matter forms which they can understand in themselves. And, since we have shown that activities and powers of natural things are caused by their specific forms, it follows that they may be traced back further, namely to higher principles, to heavenly bodies or to the powers of heavenly bodies, and still further to separated intellectual substances.

             A trace of both of these principles is evident in the very workings of natural things; for the fact, that the activities of Nature take place with a certain change and according to a definite interval of time, is due to a heavenly body upon whose movement the reckoning of time is based. But due to separated intellectual substances one finds in the operations of Nature that they proceed along fixed paths to determined ends, with order and in a most fitting way, like those things which are made by human skill; so that the whole work of Nature seems to be the achievement of a wise agent. Thus Nature is said to act with wisdom. Now the work of a wise man ought to be well-ordered; for we say rightly that this is characteristic of the sage, that he disposes of all things harmoniously.

             Therefore, because the forms of inferior things arise from the wisdom of separated substances through the intermediary of the power and movement of heavenly bodies, some order ought to be found among these forms of inferior bodies, and in such a way, namely, that some are less perfect and closer to matter, while others, however, are more perfect and closer to superior agents. The most imperfect forms, though, and especially close to matter, are the forms of elements, of which the inferior bodies are composed as regards their matter. And these (inferior bodies) are indeed the more noble (the more) that, being removed from a contrariety of elements, they approach uniformity of composition, and thus become in some way or other like to heavenly bodies, which are free of all contrariety. Now that which is composed of contraries is neither of the contraries in act but only in potency. And therefore the greater the uniformity of mixture which such bodies approach, so much the more noble a form do they receive from God. Such is the human body, which, enjoying a most uniform composition, as the excellence of touch in men indicates, has a most noble form, namely a rational soul.

             Powers and activities ought to be in proportion to the forms from which they proceed. And thus it is that the forms of elements which are for the most part material give rise to active and passive qualities, for example, heat and cold, moisture and dryness and other similar things which regard the distribution of matter. But the forms of mixtures, namely of inanimate bodies like stones, metals, minerals, in addition to the powers and activities which they share with the elements of which they are composed, have certain other more noble virtues and activities arising from specific forms--for instance, gold gladdens the heart and the sapphire stops bleeding. Thus, always in an ascending order, the more noble the specific forms, so much the more excellent are the powers and operations which come from them, till that most noble form, the rational soul, is reached, which has intellectual power and activities which not only surpass the power and activity of the elements but also every corporeal power and activity.

             Now from the forms at either end of the scale we ought to pass judgment on the forms in between. For as the power of heating and cooling is in fire and water as a result of their special forms, and as man's intellectual power and activity arise from his rational soul, so all powers and activities of things in between which exceed the virtues of the elements, arise from their proper forms, and are traced back to higher principles, to the powers of heavenly bodies, and still further to separated substances. For from these principles the forms of inferior bodies are derived, the rational soul alone excepted, which so proceeds from an immaterial cause, that is, from God, that it is in no way the product of the power of heavenly bodies. Otherwise it could not have intellectual power and activity wholly free of the body.

             Therefore, because such powers and workings are derived from a specific form which is common to all the individuals of the same species, it is impossible for an individual of a species to have some kind of power or activity beyond the other individuals of the same species, just because it came into being under a definite configuration of heavenly bodies. Yet it is possible that in an individual of the same species the power and activity arising from the species should be found more or less intense according to a diverse distribution of matter and the different configuration of the heavenly bodies at the coming into being of this or that individual.

             From this it is further evident that artificial forms are certain accidents which do not arise from the species. For it is impossible that an artificial product can have or share in a heavenly body's operation and virtue, in order that, through some endowed power, it might effect natural results transcending the virtue of the elements. If there were any such powers in artificial things they would not arise from a form (impressed) by heavenly bodies, since the form (produced) by the artisan is nothing other than order, composition and shape, from which such powers and activities cannot come. Clearly, then, if artificial things evidence some such powers--for example, should serpents die at the sight of some sculpture or animals be paralyzed in their tracks or suffer injury--it does not come from some impressed and permanent virtue but from the power of an external agent, which uses these things as instruments for its own results.

             Nor can it be said that such activities result from the power of heavenly bodies, because they act only in a natural way on those inferior things. And that a body has such and such a shape does not make it either more or less suitable for receiving the impression of a natural agent. Thus it is impossible, that images or sculptures which are made for producing extraordinary effects should have their efficacy from heavenly bodies, although they seem to be made under certain constellations. They have it only from superior agents which work through images and sculptures.

             Just as images are made from natural matter, but get their form through human skill, so also human words have indeed their matter, that is, the sounds produced by the mouth of man, but they have their meaning and as it were their form from the intellect expressing its concepts through such sounds. And so, for a like reason, human words do not have any efficacy for changing a natural body through the power of some natural cause, but only through some spiritual substance.

4. CONCLUSION

             For these works which are effected through such words, or through any kind of image or sculpture, or any such things, are not natural, because they do not spring from an intrinsic but only from an extrinsic virtue. Rather they are to be classed as superstition. The activities, however, which we have said above arise from the forms of things are natural, because they proceed from internal principles.

             And so let what has been said about occult workings and activities suffice for the present.

Footnotes

   Vd. infra, p. 10 seq. regarding the title.

   Title is as found in the List of Bartholomew of Capua, or the list which Mandonnet calls 'official,' and the sub-title as in Cod. lat. 14546, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. For the Latin text vd. appendix.

   It moves to the center of the earth, not because it is attracted to the earth's center as such, but because the earth's center coincides with the center of the world. Cf. Aquinas, In De Caelo, II., lect. xxv. (Vivès 23, p. 186). Also Aristotle: De Caelo, II, 13: 295 b 20, and IV, 4: 311 b 20. References to Aristotle are to The Works of Aristotle, translated into English under the editorship of W. D. Ross (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1912-1930).

   Cf. Con. Gen., III, c. 92: "Manifestum est enim quod etiam inanimata corpora quasdam vires et efficacias a coelestibus corporibus consequuntur, et etiam praeter eas quae ad qualitates activas et passivas elementorum consequuntur, quas etiam non est dubium coelestibus corporibus esse subjectas: sicut quod magnes attrahit ferrum habet ex virtute coelestis corporis, et lapides quidam et herbae alias occultas virtutes."

   Cf. Summa, II-II, Q. 6, a. 2 c: "Privatio debitae commensurationis humorum est de ratione speciei ipsius aegritudinis."

   Cf. Summa, II-II, Q. 2, a. 3 c: "Aqua secundum motum proprium movetur ad centrum, secundum autem motum lunae movetur circa centrum secundum fluxum et refluxum." Also, I, Q. 110, a. 3 ad 1: "In corporibus sunt alii motus locales praeter eos qui consequuntur formas; sicut fluxus et refluxus maris non consequitur formam substantialem aquae, sed virtutem lunae."

   Thomas is not identifying the activity of demons working through images with the activity of God, or of the good angels, working through such things as the shadow of Peter the Apostle or the relics of saints. He is pointing out a similarity. For whether we consider the occult phenomenon as coming from demons, from good angels, or from God working through shadows and relics, in no instance can it be attributed to the form or nature of the body apparently effecting the wonder. We must locate the adequate cause outside the thing--in good angels, demons, in God.

   Cf. Aristotle, Metaph., VI, 2: 1026 b 28 ff: "Since, among things which are, some are always in the same state and are of necessity (not necessity in the sense of compulsion but that which we assert of things because they cannot be otherwise), and some are not of necessity nor always, but for the most part, this is the principle and this the cause of the existence of the accidental; for that which is neither always nor for the most part, we call accidental." Cf. also Aquinas, commentary in loco, and his commentary In II Phy., lect. xii: "quod . . . est semper vel frequenter conveniens est esse a natura."

   Cf. Summa, I, Q. 65, a. 4 c.

   Vivès and Parma editions read: "dicitur esse ut quo aliquid est." Mandonnet has "dicitur esse id quod aliquid est." Neither reading changes the sense. Cf. De Quatuor Oppositis, cap. 1. "Sed quia materia immediate habet conjungi formae, cui ipsa est proportionata, ex qua conjunctione resultat compositum, cujus actus est ipsum esse; ideo forma est medium in acquirendo esse ipsi materiae et ipsi composito; quia ipsum conjunctum non esset nisi forma inhaerens esset materiae." On the authenticity of this opusculum vd. Mandonnet (Opuscula omnia, Introduction lvi; also Des Écrits, p. 108) who rejects it; and Grabmann (Die Werke, pp. 239 and 307) who declares it an authentic work of Thomas. Cf. also Summa, I, Q. 110, a. 2 c: "Sicut Philosophus probat in VII Metaph., text. 27, hoc quod proprie fit, est compositum. Hoc enim proprie est quasi subsistens; forma autem non dicitur ens, quasi ipsa sit, sed sicut quo aliquid est." Also I, Q. 65, a. 4 c: "Formae non habent esse, sed composita habent esse per eas."

   Cf. Summa, I, Q. 65, a. 4 c: "Sicut probat Aristoteles in VII Metaph., text. 26 et 27, id quod proprie fit, est compositum."

   Cf. Summa, I, Q. 70, a. 3 ad 3: "Corpus caeleste, cum sit movens motum, habet rationem instrumenti, quod agit in virtute principalis agentis."

   Cf. Summa, I, Q. 45, a. 7 c, where we find the explanation of vestigium (trace): "Omnis effectus aliqualiter repraesentat suam causam, sed diversimode. Nam aliquis effectus repraesentat solam causalitatem causae, non autem formam ejus, sicut fumus repraesentat ignem; et talis repraesentatio videtur esse repraesentatio vestigii: vestigium enim demonstrat motum alicujus transeuntis, sed non qualis sit."

   Cf. Gilson: The Spirit of Mediaeval Philosophy, translated by A. H. C. Downes (New York: Scribners, 1936) p. 365: "In the mediaeval philosophies, as in those of antiquity, a natural being is an active substance, with operations flowing from its essence, and necessarily determined by that essence. As for Nature, it is simply the sum-total of natures; and its characteristic attributes are therefore the same, that is to say fecundity and necessity."

   Cf. Summa, I, Q. 65, a. 4 ad 3.

   Cf. Con. Gen., I, c. 1. And Aristotle, Metaph., I, ii: 982 a 19.

   The reading in Vivès and Mandonnet is "et nobilissimam formam habet." Parma omits the et. Cf., with reference to the rational soul being the form of the body and the most noble form, Con. Gen., II, c. 68, also De spirit. creat., Q. unica, a. 2.

   Cf. Summa, II-II, Q. 96, a. 2 ad 2; and Con. Gen., III, c. 82, 2. Also De spirit. creat. Q. unica, a. 2.

   Vivès and Parma read praeter, which I have followed. Mandonnet has propter.

   "sapphyrus sanguinem constringit" I have translated as meaning to stop bleeding. In the Middle Ages the sapphire was thought to have many marvelous powers. "The sapphire nourishes the body and preserves the limbs whole . . . It leads those in bonds from prison. It placates God and makes Him favorable to prayers. It is good for peace-making and reconciliation. It is preferred to other gems in hydromancy . . . As for medicinal qualities, it cools internal heat, checks perspiration, powdered and applied with milk it heals ulcers, cleanses the eyes, stops headache, and cures diseases of the tongue." From Thorndike, Magic, i, p. 779. Thomas thought the sapphire could cure ulcers. Vd. De Spirit. creat. Q. unica, a. 2: "sapphyraus curat apostema."

   For this theory of the hierarchy of forms, so succinctly given here, cf. Con. Gen., II, c. 68.

   "a corpore penitus absolutam" is rather an unusual way with Thomas to express the distinction between soul and body. Cf. for his more customary expressions: Con. Gen., III, c. 84.

   Cf. Con. Gen., III, c. 105 and also III, c. 84.

   Cf. Con. Gen., III., c. 92: "Nihil prohibet quod etiam aliquis homo habeat, ex impressione corporis coelestis, aliquam efficaciam in aliquibus operibus faciendis, quam alius non habet; puta medicus in sanando, et agricola in plantando, et miles in expugnando."

   Cf. Con. Gen., III, c. 104: "Quod virtute coelestium corporum fit est effectus naturalis; nam formae naturales sunt quae in inferioribus causantur ex virtute coelestium corporum. Quod igitur nulli rei potest esse naturale non potest fieri virtute coelestium corporum. Quaedam autem talia fieri dicuntur per operationes praedictas: sicut quod ad praesentiam alicujus quaecumque sera ei pandatur; quod aliquis invisibilis reddatur; et multa hujusmodi narrantur. Non est igitur possibile hoc fieri virtute coelestium corporum."

   Cf. Con. Gen., III, c. 104: "Cuicumque virtute coelestium corporum confertur quod posterius est, confertur et ei quod prius est. Moveri autem per se consequitur ad habere animam; animatorum enim proprium est quod moveant seipsa. Impossibile est igitur fieri virtute coelestium corporum quod aliquid inanimatum per se moveatur. Fieri autem hoc per magicas artes dicitur quod aliqua statua per se moveatur aut vocem emittat. Non est igitur possibile quod effectus magicarum artium fiat virtute coelesti."

   Cf. Summa, I, Q. 110, a. 1 ad 2: "Sed quia nos ponimus, multa in corporibus inferioribus fieri praeter naturales actiones corporum, ad quae non sufficiunt virtutes caelestium corporum; ideo secundum nos necesse est ponere, quod angeli habeant immediatam praesidentiam, non solum supra caelestia corpora, sed etiam supra corpora inferiora."

   Parma and Vivès read: "naturalis ex virtute alicujus causae naturalis, sed solum . . . " Mandonnet omits "ex virtute alicujus causae naturalis," which seems a mistake, so I have preferred the former reading.

   Cf. Con. Gen., III, c. 105: "Si autem dicatur quod etiam imaginatio aliquid in prolatione vocum significativarum operatur, super quam possunt corpora coelestia imprimere, quum hujusmodi operatio sit per organum corporale, hoc non potest esse quantum ad omnes effectus qui per hujusmodi artes fiunt. Ostensum est enim quod non possunt omnes effectus virtute stellarum produci. Ergo neque virtute stellarum aliquis sortiri potest hanc virtutem ut eosdem effectus producat. Relinquitur igitur quod hujusmodi effectus compleantur per aliquem intellectum ad quem sermo proferentis per hujusmodi voces dirigitur. Hujus autem signum est; nam hujusmodi significativae voces quibus magi utuntur invocationes sunt, supplicationes, adjurationes, aut etiam imperia quasi ad alterum colloquentis."

   Cf. this closing with De Quatuor Oppositis: "Et haec de quatuor oppositis dicta sufficiant." Also with De Fallaciis (which Mandonnet considers doubtfully authentic, Opuscula omnia, Introduction, p. lvi; but which Grabmann, Die Werke, p. 307, thinks is certainly authentic): "Et haec de fallaciis dicta sufficiant."