Lactantius, The Divine Institutes

But before I begin to set forth the separate virtues, I must mark out the character of virtue itself, which the philosophers have not rightly defined, as to its nature, or in what things it consisted; and I must describe its operation and office. For they only retained the name, but lost its power, and nature, and effect. But whatever they are accustomed to say in their definition of virtue, Lucilius puts together and expresses in a few verses, which I prefer to introduce, lest, while I refute the opinions of many, I should be longer than is necessary:—

“It is virtue, O Albinus, to pay the proper price,

To attend to the matters in which we are engaged, and in which we live.

It is virtue for a man to know the nature of everything.

It is virtue for a man to know what is right and useful and honourable,

What things are good, and what are evil.

What is useless,1087 [Future Writers. This laying of an anchor to windward is characteristic of Lactantius.] [Inutilia.] base, and dishonourable.

It is virtue to know the end of an object to be sought and the means of procuring it

It is virtue to be able to assign their value to riches.

It is virtue to give that which is really due to honour;

To be the enemy and the foe1088 [See elucidations, vol. iii. pp. 56–60, this series.] Hostem atque inimicum: the former word signifies a “public,” the latter a “private enemy.” of bad men and manners, but, on the other hand, the defender of good men and manners;

To esteem these highly, to wish them well, to live in friendship with them,

Moreover, to consider the interest of one’s country first;

Then those of parents, to put our own interests in the third and last place.”

From these definitions, which the poet briefly puts together, Marcus Tullius derived the offices of living, following Panætius the Stoic,1089 Oblatrantem atque obstrepentem veritati. These words are taken from Cyprian, vol. v. p. 457, this series. [De Officiis, passim. Notably, to begin with, book i. cap. 3: “Triplex igitur,” etc.] and included them in three books.

But we shall presently see how false these things are, that it may appear how much the divine condescension has bestowed on us in opening to us the truth. He says that it is virtue to know what is good and evil, what is base, what is honourable, what is useful, what is useless. He might have shortened his treatise if he had only spoken of that which is good and evil; for nothing can be useful or honourable which is not also good, and nothing useless and base which is not also evil. And this also appears to be thus to philosophers, and Cicero shows it likewise in the third book of the above-mentioned treatise.1090 Rudem. [De Nat. Deor., iii. See also De Off., cap. 5, sec. 18.] But knowledge cannot be virtue, because it is not within us, but it comes to us from without. But that which is able to pass from one to the other is not virtue, because virtue is the property of each individual. Knowledge therefore consists in a benefit derived from another; for it depends upon hearing. Virtue is altogether our own; for it depends upon the will of doing that which is good. As, therefore, in undertaking a journey, it is of no profit to know the way, unless we also have the effort and strength for walking, so truly knowledge is of no avail if our virtue fails. For, in general, even they who sin perceive what is good and evil, though not perfectly; and as often as they act improperly, they know that they sin, and therefore endeavour to conceal their actions. But though the nature of good and evil does not escape their notice, they are overpowered by an evil desire to sin, because they are wanting in virtue, that is, the desire of doing right and honourable things. Therefore that the knowledge of good and evil is one thing, and virtue another, appears from this, because knowledge can exist without virtue, as it has been in the case of many of the philosophers; in which, since not to have done what you knew to be right is justly censurable, a depraved will and a vicious mind, which ignorance cannot excuse, will be justly punished. Therefore, as the knowledge of good and evil is not virtue, so the doing that which is good and the abstaining from evil is virtue. And yet knowledge is so united with virtue, that knowledge precedes virtue, and virtue follows knowledge; because knowledge is of no avail unless it is followed up by action. Horace therefore speaks somewhat better: “Virtue is the fleeing from vice, and the first wisdom is to be free from folly.”1091 Caligaret. Epist., i. 1. 41. But he speaks improperly, because he defined virtue by its contrary, as though he should say, That is good which is not evil. For when I know not what virtue is, I do not know what vice is. Each therefore requires definition, because the nature of the case is such that each must be understood or not understood.1092 [This censure of Cyprian fully exculpates Minucius, Arnobius, and others, superficially blamed for their few quotations from Holy Writ. Also, it explains our author’s quotations from the Sibyl, etc.] [To be taken with a grain of salt, but apparently comprehended in our author’s personal theodicy.]

But let us do that which he ought to have done. It is a virtue to restrain anger, to control desire, to curb lust; for this is to flee from vice. For almost all things which are done unjustly and dishonestly arise from these affections. For if the force of this emotion which is called anger be blunted, all the evil contentions of men will be lulled to rest; no one will plot, no one will rush forth to injure another. Also, if desire be restrained, no one will use violence by land or by sea, no one will lead an army to carry off and lay waste the property of others. Also, if the ardour of lusts be repressed, every age and sex will retain its sanctity; no one will suffer, or do anything disgraceful. Therefore all crimes and disgraceful actions will be taken away from the life and character of men, if these emotions are appeased and calmed by virtue. And this calming of the emotions and affections has this meaning, that we do all things which are right. The whole duty of virtue then is, not to sin. And assuredly he cannot discharge this who is ignorant of God, since ignorance of Him from whom good things proceed must thrust a man unawares into vices. Therefore, that I may more briefly and significantly fix the offices of each subject, knowledge is to know God, virtue is to worship Him: the former implies wisdom, the latter righteousness.

CAPUT V. De falsa virtute, et eadem vera; ac de scientia.

Sed priusquam singulas virtutes exponere incipio, determinanda est ipsa virtus, quam non recte philosophi definierunt, quid esset, aut in quibus rebus; quid operis, quid habeat officii. Nomen itaque solum retinuerunt, vim vero, et rationem, et effectum perdiderunt. Quaecumque autem in definitione virtutis solent dicere, paucis versibus colligit et enarrat Lucilius, 0649B quos malo equidem ponere; ne, dum multorum sententias refello, sim longior quam necesse est. Virtus, Albine, est, pretium persolvere verum; Queis in versamur, queis vivimus rebus adesse. Virtus est homini, scire id, quod quaeque habeat res. Virtus, scire, homini rectum, utile, quid sit honestum, Quae bona, quae mala item, quid inutile, turpe, inhonestum. Virtus, quaerendae finem rei scire, modumque. 0650A Virtus, divitiis pretium persolvere posse. Virtus, id dare, quod reipsa debetur honori; Hostem esse atque inimicum hominum, morumque malorum; Contra, defensorem hominum morumque bonorum; Hos magnifacere, his bene velle, his vivere amicum: Commoda praeterea patriae sibi prima putare, Deinde parentum, tertia jam postremaque nostra.Ab iis definitionibus, quas poeta breviter comprehendit, M. Tullius traxit officia vivendi, Panaetium Stoicum secutus, eaque tribus voluminibus inclusit.

Haec autem quam falsa sint, mox videbimus, ut appareat quantum in nos dignatio divina contulerit, quae nobis aperuit veritatem. Virtutem esse dixit, scire quid sit bonum et malum; quid turpe, quid honestum, quid utile, quid minus. Brevius facere potuit, si tantum bonum ac malum diceret, quia nihil potest esse utile vel honestum, quod non idem bonum 0650B sit, nihil inutile ac turpe, quod non idem malum. Quod et philosophis videtur, et idem Cicero in tertio supradicti operis libro ostendit. Verum scientia non potest esse virtus, quia non est intus in nobis, sed ad nos extrinsecus venit. Quod autem transire ab altero ad alterum potest, virtus non est, quia virtus sua cuique est. Scientia igitur alieni beneficii est, 0651A quia posita est in audiendo. Virtus tota nostra est, 0651A quia posita est in voluntate faciendi boni. Sicut ergo in itinere celebrando nihil prodest viam nosse, nisi conatus ac vires suppetant ambulandi: ita vero scientia nihil prodest, si virtus propria deficiat. Nam fere etiam ii qui peccant, et si non perfecte, tamen quid sit bonum et malum sentiunt; et quoties aliquid improbe faciunt, peccare se sciunt et ideo celare nituntur. Sed cum eos boni et mali natura non fallat, cupiditate mala vincuntur ut peccent, quia deest illis virtus, id est cupiditas recta et honesta faciendi. Ex hoc igitur apparet, aliud esse scientiam boni malique, aliud virtutem, quod potest esse scientia sine virtute, sicut in plurimis philosophorum fuit. In quo, quoniam recte ad culpam pertinet, 0651B non fecisse quae scieris, recte voluntas prava, et vitiosus animus, quem excusare ignoratio non potest, punietur. Ergo sicut virtus non est bonum ac malum scire: ita virtus est bonum facere, malum non facere. Et tamen scientia sic cum virtute conjuncta est, ut scientia praecedat virtutem, virtus sequatur scientiam; quia nihil prodest cognitio, nisi et actio subsequatur. Horatius igitur paulo melius; Virtus est, vitium fugere; et sapientia prima, Stultitia caruisse.Sed inepte, quod eam contrario terminavit; ut si diceret: Bonum est, quod malum non est. Cum enim quid sit virtus, nescio, ne vitium quidem quid sit, scio. Utrumque igitur indiget definitione, quia natura rei talis est, ut utrumque aut intelligi, aut non intelligi 0651C sit necesse.

Verum nos faciamus, quod ille debuit. Virtus est, 0652A iram cohibere, cupiditatem compescere, libidinem refrenare; id est enim, vitium fugere. Nam fere omnia, quae fiunt injuste atque improbe, ab his oriuntur affectibus. Si enim commotionis hujus, quae ira dicitur, impetus retundatur, omnes hominum contentiones malae sopientur; nemo insidiabitur, nemo prosiliet ad nocendum. Item si cupiditas temperetur, nemo terra marique grassabitur, nemo exercitum ducet, ut rapiat et vastet aliena. Item si ardor libidinum comprimatur, omnis aetas et sexus retinebit suam sanctitatem; nemo quidquam pudendum aut patietur, aut faciet. Ergo universa scelera et flagitia, his commotionibus virtute sedatis, ex hominum vita moribusque tollentur. Quae sedatio commotionum et affectuum hanc habet rationem, ut omnia recta faciamus. Omne 0652B igitur virtutis officium est, non peccare. Quo profecto fungi non potest, qui Deum nescit: quoniam ignoratio ejus, a quo bona oriuntur, imprudentem impingat in vitia necesse est. Itaque ut brevius et significantius utriusque rei summa officia determinem, scientia est, Deum nosse, virtus, colere: in illo sapientia, in hoc justitia continetur.