5. Do not then go beyond yourself to seek for evil, and imagine that there is an original nature of wickedness. Each of us, let us acknowledge it, is the first author of his own vice. Among the ordinary events of life, some come naturally, like old age and sickness, others by chance like unforeseen occurrences, of which the origin is beyond ourselves, often sad, sometimes fortunate, as for instance the discovery of a treasure when digging a well, or the meeting of a mad dog when going to the market place. Others depend upon ourselves, such as ruling one’s passions, or not putting a bridle on one’s pleasures, to be master of our anger, or to raise the hand against him who irritates us, to tell the truth, or to lie, to have a sweet and well-regulated disposition, or to be fierce and swollen and exalted with pride.  16  cf. Epictetus, Ench. i. ἐφ᾽ ἡμῖν μὲν ὑπόληψις, ὁρμὴ, ὄρεξις, ἔκκλισις, καὶ ἑνὶ λόγῳ ὁσα ἡμέτερα ἔργα. Here you are the master of your actions. Do not look for the guiding cause beyond yourself, but recognise that evil, rightly so called, has no other origin than our voluntary falls. If it were involuntary, and did not depend upon ourselves, the laws would not have so much terror for the guilty, and the tribunals would not be so without pity when they condemn wretches according to the measure of their crimes. But enough concerning evil rightly so called. Sickness, poverty, obscurity, death, finally all human afflictions, ought not to be ranked as evils; since we do not count among the greatest boons things which are their opposites.  17  cf. M. Aurelius II. xi. ὃ γὰρ χείρω μὴ ποιεῖ ἄνθρωπον, πῶς δη τοῦτο βίον ἀνθρώπου χείρω ποιήσειεν;…θάνατος δέ γε καὶ ζωὴ δόξα καὶ ἀδοξία, πόνος καὶ ἡδονὴ, πλοῦτος καὶ πενία, πάντα ταῦτα ἐπίσης συμβαίνει ἀνθρώπων τοῖς τε ἀγαθοῖς καὶ τοῖς κακοῖς, οὔτε καλὰ ὄντα οὔτε αἰσχρά· οὐτ᾽ ἀρ᾽ ἀγαθὰ οὔτε κακά ἐστι. Also Greg. Nyss. Orat. Cat. and Aug., De Civ. Dei. i. 8. Ista vero temporalia bona et mala utrisque voluit esse communia, ut nec bona cupidius appetantur, quæ mali quoque habere cernuntur, nec mala turpiter evitentur, quibus et boni plerumque afficiuntur. Among these afflictions, some are the effect of nature, others have obviously been for many a source of advantage. Let us then be silent for the moment about these metaphors and allegories, and, simply following without vain curiosity the words of Holy Scripture, let us take from darkness the idea which it gives us.

But reason asks, was darkness created with the world? Is it older than light? Why in spite of its inferiority has it preceded it? Darkness, we reply, did not exist in essence; it is a condition produced in the air by the withdrawal of light. What then is that light which disappeared suddenly from the world, so that darkness should cover the face of the deep? If anything had existed before the formation of this sensible and perishable world, no doubt we conclude it would have been in light. The orders of angels, the heavenly hosts, all intellectual natures named or unnamed, all the ministering spirits,  18  cf. Heb. i. 14. did not live in darkness, but enjoyed a condition fitted for them in light and spiritual joy.  19  cf. Theod. (Quæst. in Gen. vi.) who is ready to accept the creation of angels before the creation of the world. Origen, Hom. i. in Gen. Hom. iv. in Is. taught the existence of angels “before the æons.” Greg. Naz., Orat. xxxviii. The lxx. Trans. of Job xxxviii. 7, ᾔνεσάν με πάντες ἄγγελοί μου may have aided in the formation of the general opinion of the Greek Fathers. The systematization of the hierarchies is due to the pseudo, Dionysius, and was transmitted to the west through John Erigena. cf. Milman, Lat. Christ. ix. 59.

No one will contradict this; least of all he who looks for celestial light as one of the rewards promised to virtue, the light which, as Solomon says, is always a light to the righteous,  20  Prov. xiii. 9, lxx. the light which made the Apostle say “Giving thanks unto the Father, which hath made us meet to be partakers of the inheritance of the saints in light.”  21  Col. i. 12. Finally, if the condemned are sent into outer darkness  22  cf. Matt. xxii. 13. evidently those who are made worthy of God’s approval, are at rest in heavenly light. When then, according to the order of God, the heaven appeared, enveloping all that its circumference included, a vast and unbroken body separating outer things from those which it enclosed, it necessarily kept the space inside in darkness for want of communication with the outer light. Three things are, indeed, needed to form a shadow, light, a body, a dark place. The shadow of heaven forms the darkness of the world. Understand, I pray you, what I mean, by a simple example; by raising for yourself at mid-day a tent of some compact and impenetrable material, and shutting yourself up in it in sudden darkness. Suppose that original darkness was like this, not subsisting directly by itself, but resulting from some external causes. If it is said that it rested upon the deep, it is because the extremity of air naturally touches the surface of bodies; and as at that time the water covered everything, we are obliged to say that darkness was upon the face of the deep.

Μὴ τοίνυν ἔξωθεν τὸ κακὸν περισκόπει: μηδὲ ἀρχέγονόν τινα φύσιν πονηρίας φαντάζου: ἀλλὰ τῆς ἐν ἑαυτῷ κακίας ἕκαστος ἑαυτὸν ἀρχηγὸν γνωριζέτω. Ἀεὶ γὰρ τῶν γινομένων τὰ μὲν ἐκ φύσεως ἡμῖν ἐπιγίνεται, οἷον γῆρας καὶ ἀσθένειαι: τὰ δὲ ἀπὸ ταυτομάτου, οἷον αἱ ἄλογοι περιπτώσεις ἀλλοτρίαις ἀρχαῖς ἐπισυμβαίνουσαι, σκυθρωπῶν τινων πολλάκις ἢ καὶ τῶν φαιδροτέρων: ὡς τῷ φρέαρ ὀρύσσοντι ἡ τοῦ θησαυροῦ εὕρεσις, ἢ τῷ πρὸς τὴν ἀγορὰν ὡρμημένῳ ἡ τοῦ λυσσῶντος κυνὸς ἔντευξις: τὰ δὲ ἐφ' ἡμῖν τυγχάνει, ὡς τὸ κρατῆσαι τῶν ἐπιθυμιῶν, ἢ μὴ κολάσαι τὰς ἡδονάς: ὡς τὸ κατασχεῖν ὀργῆς, ἢ χεῖρας ἐπαφεῖναι τῷ παροξύναντι: ἀληθεύειν, ἢ ψεύδεσθαι: ἐπιεικῆ τὸ ἦθος εἶναι καὶ μέτριον, ἢ ὑπέρογκον καὶ ἀλαζονείαις ὑπεραιρόμενον. Ὧν τοίνυν αὐτὸς εἶ κύριος, τούτων τὰς ἀρχὰς μὴ ζητήσῃς ἑτέρωθεν, ἀλλὰ γνώριζε τὸ κυρίως κακὸν ἐκ τῶν προαιρετικῶν ἀποπτωμάτων τὴν ἀρχὴν εἰληφός. Οὐ γὰρ ἂν εἴπερ ἀκούσιον ἦν, καὶ μὴ ἐφ' ἡμῖν, τοσοῦτος μὲν ἐκ τῶν νόμων ὁ φόβος τοῖς ἀδικοῦσιν ἐπήρτητο, οὕτω δὲ ἀπαραίτητοι τῶν δικαστηρίων αἱ κολάσεις, τὸ πρὸς ἀξίαν τοῖς κακούργοις ἀντιμετροῦσαι. Ταῦτα δέ μοι εἰρήσθω περὶ τοῦ κυρίως κακοῦ. Νόσον γὰρ καὶ πενίαν καὶ ἀδοξίαν καὶ θάνατον, καὶ ὅσα λυπηρὰ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις, οὔπω καὶ ἐν τῇ μοίρᾳ τῶν κακῶν καταλογίζεσθαι ἄξιον, διὰ τὸ μηδὲ τὰ ἀντικείμενα τούτοις, ἐν τοῖς μεγίστοις ἡμᾶς τῶν ἀγαθῶν ἀριθμεῖν: ὧν τὰ μὲν ἐκ φύσεώς ἐστι, τὰ δὲ καὶ συμφερόντως πολλοῖς ἀπαντήσαντα φαίνεται. Πᾶσαν οὖν τροπικὴν καὶ δι' ὑπονοίας ἐξήγησιν ἔν γε τῷ παρόντι κατασιγάσαντες, τοῦ σκότους τὴν ἔννοιαν ἁπλῶς καὶ ἀπεριεργάστως, ἑπόμενοι τῷ βουλήματι τῆς Γραφῆς, ἐκδεξώμεθα. Ἐπιζητεῖ δὲ ὁ λόγος, εἰ συγκατεσκευάσθη τῷ κόσμῳ τὸ σκότος, καὶ εἰ ἀρχαιότερον τοῦ φωτὸς, καὶ διὰ τί τὸ χεῖρον πρεσβύτερον; Λέγομεν τοίνυν καὶ τοῦτο τὸ σκότος μὴ κατ' οὐσίαν ὑφεστηκέναι, ἀλλὰ πάθος εἶναι περὶ τὸν ἀέρα στερήσει φωτὸς ἐπιγινόμενον. Ποίου τοίνυν φωτὸς ἄμοιρος αἰφνιδίως ὁ ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ τόπος εὑρέθη, ὥστε τὸ σκότος ἐπάνω εἶναι τοῦ ὕδατος; Λογιζόμεθα τοίνυν ὅτι, εἴπερ τι ἦν πρὸ τῆς τοῦ αἰσθητοῦ τούτου καὶ φθαρτοῦ κόσμου συστάσεως, ἐν φωτὶ ἂν ἦν δηλονότι. Οὔτε γὰρ αἱ τῶν ἀγγέλων ἀξίαι, οὔτε πᾶσαι αἱ ἐπουράνιοι στρατιαὶ, οὔτε ὅλως εἴ τι ἐστὶν ὠνομασμένον ἢ ἀκατονόμαστον τῶν λογικῶν φύσεων, καὶ τῶν λειτουργικῶν πνευμάτων ἐν σκότῳ διῆγεν, ἀλλ' ἐν φωτὶ καὶ πάσῃ εὐφροσύνῃ πνευματικῇ τὴν πρέπουσαν ἑαυτοῖς κατάστασιν εἶχε. Καὶ τούτοις οὐδεὶς ἀντερεῖ, οὔκουν ὅστις γε τὸ ὑπερουράνιον φῶς ἐν ταῖς τῶν ἀγαθῶν ἐπαγγελίαις ἐκδέχεται, περὶ οὗ Σολομών φησι: Φῶς δικαίοις διὰ παντός: καὶ ὁ ἀπόστολος: Εὐχαριστοῦντες Πατρὶ τῷ ἱκανώσαντι ἡμᾶς ἐν τῇ μερίδι τοῦ κλήρου τῶν ἁγίων ἐν τῷ φωτί. Εἰ γὰρ οἱ καταδικαζόμενοι πέμπονται εἰς τὸ σκότος τὸ ἐξώτερον, δηλονότι οἱ τὰ τῆς ἀποδοχῆς ἄξια εἰργασμένοι, ἐν τῷ ὑπερκοσμίῳ φωτὶ τὴν ἀνάπαυσιν ἔχουσιν. Ἐπεὶ οὖν ἐγένετο ὁ οὐρανὸς προστάγματι Θεοῦ ἀθρόως περιταθεὶς τοῖς ἐντὸς ὑπὸ τῆς οἰκείας αὐτοῦ περιφερείας ἀπειλημμένοις, σῶμα ἔχων συνεχὲς, ἱκανὸν τῶν ἔξω διαστῆσαι τὰ ἔνδον, ἀναγκαίως τὸν ἐναπολειφθέντα αὐτῷ τόπον ἀφεγγῆ κατέστησε, τὴν ἔξωθεν αὐγὴν διακόψας. Τρία γὰρ δεῖ συνδραμεῖν ἐπὶ τῆς σκιᾶς, τὸ φῶς, τὸ σῶμα, τὸν ἀλαμπῆ τόπον. Τὸ τοίνυν ἐγκόσμιον σκότος τῇ σκιᾷ τοῦ οὐρανίου σώματος παρυπέστη. Νόησον δέ μοι ἀπὸ παραδείγματος ἐναργοῦς τὸ λεγόμενον, ἐν σταθηρᾷ μεσημβρίᾳ σκηνήν τινα ἐκ πυκνῆς καὶ στεγανῆς ὕλης ἑαυτῷ περιστήσαντα, καὶ ἐν σκότῳ αὐτοσχεδίῳ ἑαυτὸν καθειργνύντα. Τοιοῦτον οὖν κἀκεῖνο τὸ σκότος ὑπόθου, οὐ προηγουμένως ὑφεστηκὸς, ἀλλ' ἐπακολουθῆσαν ἑτέροις. Τοῦτο δὴ τὸ σκότος καὶ ἐπιβαίνειν λέγεται τῇ ἀβύσσῳ, ἐπειδὴ τὰ ἔσχατα τοῦ ἀέρος πέφυκε ταῖς ἐπιφανείαις τῶν σωμάτων συνάπτεσθαι. Τότε δὲ ὕδωρ ἦν τοῖς πᾶσιν ἐπιπολάζον. Διόπερ ἀναγκαίως τὸ σκότος ἐπάνω ὑπάρχειν εἴρηται τῆς ἀβύσσου.