5. But let us return to the spectacle of creation. The easiest animals to catch are the most productive. It is on account of this that hares and wild goats produce many little ones, and that wild sheep have twins, for fear lest these species should disappear, consumed by carnivorous animals. Beasts of prey, on the contrary, produce only a few and a lioness with difficulty gives birth to one lion;  27  cf. Herod. iii. 108. Aristotle (Hist. An. vi. 31) refutes this. because, if they say truly, the cub issues from its mother by tearing her with its claws; and vipers are only born by gnawing through the womb, inflicting a proper punishment on their mother.  28  cf. Pliny (x. 72): “Tertia die intra uterum catulos excludit, deinde singulos singulis diebus parit, viginti fere numero. Itaque ceteræ, tarditatis impatientes, perrumpunt latera, occisa parente. cf. Herod. iii. 109. So Prudentius (Hamartigenia 583): “Sic vipera, ut aiunt, Dentibus emoritur fusæ per viscera prolis.” See Sir T. Browne’s Vulgur Errors, iii. 16. Thus in nature all has been foreseen, all is the object of continual care. If you examine the members even of animals, you will find that the Creator has given them nothing superfluous, that He has omitted nothing that is necessary. To carnivorous animals He has given pointed teeth which their nature requires for their support. Those that are only half furnished with teeth have received several distinct receptacles for their food. As it is not broken up enough in the first, they are gifted with the power of returning it after it has been swallowed, and it does not assimilate until it has been crushed by rumination. The first, second, third, and fourth stomachs of ruminating animals do not remain idle; each one of them fulfils a necessary function.  29  Pliny (xi. 78) says ruminantibus geminus, but this is supposed to be a misreading for quadrigeminus, or a mistaken interpretation of Aristotle (H.A. ii. 19), whom Basil is no doubt following. The neck of the camel is long so that it may lower it to its feet and reach the grass on which it feeds. Bears, lions, tigers, all animals of this sort, have short necks buried in their shoulders; it is because they do not live upon grass and have no need to bend down to the earth; they are carnivorous and eat the animals upon whom they prey.

Why has the elephant a trunk? This enormous creature, the greatest of terrestrial animals, created for the terror of those who meet it, is naturally huge and fleshy. If its neck was large and in proportion to its feet it would be difficult to direct, and would be of such an excessive weight that it would make it lean towards the earth. As it is, its head is attached to the spine of the back by short vertebrae and it has its trunk to take the place of a neck, and with it it picks up its food and draws up its drink. Its feet, without joints,  30  See Sir T. Browne, Vulgar Errors, iii. 1. like united columns, support the weight of its body. If it were supported on lax and flexible legs, its joints would constantly give way, equally incapable of supporting its weight, should it wish either to kneel or rise. But it has under the foot a little ankle joint which takes the place of the leg and knee joints whose mobility would never have resisted this enormous and swaying mass. Thus it had need of this nose which nearly touches its feet. Have you seen them in war marching at the head of the phalanx, like living towers, or breaking the enemies’ battalions like mountains of flesh with their irresistible charge? If their lower parts were not in accordance with their size they would never have been able to hold their own. Now we are told that the elephant lives three hundred years and more,  31  Arist. H.A. viii. 12 and ix. 72. Pliny vii. 10. another reason for him to have solid and unjointed feet. But, as we have said, his trunk, which has the form and the flexibility of a serpent, takes its food from the earth and raises it up. Thus we are right in saying that it is impossible to find anything superfluous or wanting in creation. Well! God has subdued this monstrous animal to us to such a point that he understands the lessons and endures the blows we give him; a manifest proof that the Creator has submitted all to our rule, because we have been made in His image. It is not in great animals only that we see unapproachable wisdom; no less wonders are seen in the smallest. The high tops of the mountains which, near to the clouds and continually beaten by the winds, keep up a perpetual winter, do not arouse more admiration in me than the hollow valleys, which escape the storms of lofty peaks and preserve a constant mild temperature. In the same way in the constitution of animals I am not more astonished at the size of the elephant, than at the mouse, who is feared by the elephant, or at the scorpion’s delicate sting, which has been hollowed like a pipe by the supreme artificer to throw venom into the wounds it makes. And let nobody accuse the Creator of having produced venomous animals, destroyers and enemies of our life. Else let them consider it a crime in the schoolmaster when he disciplines the restlessness of youth by the use of the rod and whip to maintain order.  32  cf. Hom. v. 4.

Ἀλλ' ἐπὶ τὴν θεωρίαν τῆς κτίσεως ἐπανίωμεν. Τὰ εὐαλωτότερα τῶν ζῴων, πολυγονώτερα. Διὰ τοῦτο πολυτόκοι λαγωοὶ, καὶ αἶγες ἄγριαι, καὶ πρόβατα ἄγρια διδυμοτόκα, ἵνα μὴ ἐπιλείπῃ τὸ γένος ὑπὸ τῶν ὠμοβόρων ἐκδαπανώμενον. Τὰ δὲ φθαρτικὰ τῶν ἄλλων, ὀλιγοτόκα. Ὅθεν λέοντος ἑνὸς μόλις ἡ λέαινα μήτηρ γίνεται. Ταῖς γὰρ ἀκμαῖς τῶν ὀνύχων διασπαράξας τὴν μήτραν, οὕτω πρόεισιν, ὥς φασι: καὶ ἔχιδναι τὰς μήτρας ἐκφαγοῦσαι προέρχονται, πρέποντας τῇ γεννησαμένῃ τοὺς μισθοὺς ἐκτιννύουσαι. Οὕτως οὐδὲν ἀπρονόητον ἐν τοῖς οὖσιν, οὐδὲ τῆς ἐπιβαλούσης αὐτοῖς ἐπιμελείας ἄμοιρα. Κἂν αὐτὰ τὰ μέλη τῶν ζῴων καταμάθῃς, εὑρήσεις ὅτι οὔτε περιττόν τι ὁ κτίσας προσέθηκεν, οὔτε ἀφεῖλε τῶν ἀναγκαίων. Τοῖς σαρκοφάγοις ζῴοις ὀξεῖς τοὺς ὀδόντας ἐνήρμοσε: τοιούτων γὰρ ἦν χρεία πρὸς τὸ τῆς τροφῆς εἶδος. Ἃ δὲ ἐξ ἡμισείας ὥπλισται τοῖς ὀδοῦσι, πολλαῖς καὶ ποικίλαις ἀποθήκαις τῶν τροφῶν παρεσκεύασε. Διὰ γὰρ τὸ παρὰ τὴν πρώτην μὴ ἀρκούντως καταλεπτύνεσθαι τὴν τροφὴν, ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς τὸ καταποθὲν πάλιν ἀναπεμπάζεσθαι, ὥστε καταλεανθὲν τῷ μηρυκισμῷ προσοικειοῦσθαι τῷ τρεφομένῳ. Στόμαχοι καὶ ἐχῖνοι, καὶ κεκρύφαλοι, καὶ ἔνυστρα, οὐκ ἀργῶς ἔγκειται τῶν ζῴων τοῖς ἔχουσιν, ἀλλ' ἀναγκαίων χρείαν ἕκαστον ἐκπληροῖ. Μακρὸς ὁ τράχηλος τῆς καμήλου, ἵνα τοῖς ποσὶν ἐξισάζηται καὶ ἐφικνῆται τῆς βοτάνης ἐξ ἧς ἀποζῇ. Βραχὺς καὶ τοῖς ὤμοις ἐνδεδυκὼς ὁ τράχηλος τῆς ἄρκτου: καὶ λέοντος δὲ, καὶ τίγριδος, καὶ τῶν λοιπῶν, ὅσα τούτου τοῦ γένους: ὅτι οὐκ ἐκ τῆς πόας αὐτοῖς ἡ τροφὴ, οὐδὲ ἀνάγκη πρὸς τὴν γῆν κατακύπτειν, σαρκοφάγοις οὖσι, καὶ ἐκ τῆς ἄγρας τῶν ζῴων διαρκουμένοις. Τί βούλεται ἡ προνομαία τῷ ἐλέφαντι; Ὅτι μέγα τὸ ζῷον, καὶ τῶν χερσαίων τὸ μέγιστον, εἰς τὴν τῶν ἐντυγχανόντων ἔκπληξιν παραχθὲν, πολύσαρκον ἐχρῆν εἶναι καὶ συμπεφορημένον τὸ σῶμα. Τούτῳ εἰ μέγας καὶ ἀναλογῶν τοῖς ποσὶν ὁ τράχηλος προσετέθη, δυσμεταχείριστος ἂν ἦν, τῷ ὑπερβάλλοντι βάρει καταρρέπων ἀεὶ πρὸς τὸ κάτω. Νῦν δὲ ἡ μὲν κεφαλὴ δι' ὀλίγων τῶν τοῦ αὐχένος σφονδύλων πρὸς τὴν ῥάχιν συνάπτεται: ἔχει δὲ τὴν προνομαίαν, τὴν τοῦ τραχήλου χρείαν ἀποπληροῦσαν, δι' ἧς καὶ τὴν τροφὴν προσάγεται, καὶ τὸ ποτὸν ἀνιμᾶται. Ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀδιάρθρωτοι αὐτῷ οἱ πόδες, οἱονεὶ κίονες ἡνωμένοι, τὸ βάρος ὑποστηρίζουσιν. Εἰ γὰρ χαῦνα αὐτῷ καὶ δίυγρα ὑπετέθη τὰ κῶλα, συνεχεῖς ἂν ἐγίνοντο τῶν ἄρθρων αἱ ἐκτροπαὶ, συνοκλάζοντος καὶ διανισταμένου κουφίζειν τὸ βάρος μὴ ἐξαρκούντων. Νῦν δὲ βραχὺς ἀστράγαλος ὑπόκειται τῷ ποδὶ τοῦ ἐλέφαντος, οὔτε μέντοι εἰς ἀγκύλην, οὔτε εἰς γόνυ διήρθρωται. Οὐ γὰρ ἂν ὑπήνεγκε τὸ τῶν ἄρθρων ὀλισθηρὸν τὴν πολυσαρκίαν τοῦ ζῴου πολλὴν αὐτῷ περικεχυμένην καὶ περιτρέμουσαν. Ὅθεν χρεία γέγονε τοῦ μυκτῆρος ἐκείνου μέχρι ποδῶν καθιεμένου. Οὐχ ὁρᾷς ἐν τοῖς πολέμοις, ὅτι οἱονεὶ πύργοι τινὲς ἔμψυχοι τῆς φάλαγγος προηγοῦνται; ἢ βουνοί τινες σάρκινοι, ἀνυπόστατον ἔχοντες τὴν ὁρμὴν, τῶν ἐναντίων τὸν συνασπισμὸν διακόπτουτιν; Οἷς εἰ μὴ ἦν ἀναλογοῦντα τὰ κάτω, πρὸς οὐδένα ἂν χρόνον τὸ ζῷον διήρκεσε. Νῦν δὲ ἤδη τινὲς ἱστοροῦσι καὶ τριακόσια ἔτη καὶ πλείω τούτων βιοῦν τὸν ἐλέφαντα: διὰ τοῦτο συμπεπηγὸς καὶ οὐ διηρθρωμένον τὰ κῶλα. Τὴν δὲ τροφὴν, ὥσπερ ἔφαμεν, ἡ προνομαία χαμόθεν ἐπὶ τὸ ὕψος διακομίζει, ὀφιώδης τις οὖσα καὶ ὑγροτέρα τὴν φύσιν. Οὕτως ἀληθὴς ὁ λόγος, ὅτι οὐδὲν περιττὸν οὐδὲ ἐλλεῖπον ἐν τοῖς κτισθεῖσι δυνατὸν εὑρεθῆναι. Τοῦτο μέντοι τοσοῦτον ὂν τῷ μεγέθει ὑποχείριον ἡμῖν κατέστησεν ὁ Θεὸς (ὥστε καὶ διδασκόμενον συνιέναι, καὶ τυπτόμενον καταδέχεσθαι), ἐναργῶς ἡμᾶς ἐκδιδάσκων, ὅτι πάντα ὑπέταξεν ἡμῖν, διὰ τὸ κατ' εἰκόνα ἡμᾶς πεποιῆσθαι τοῦ κτίσαντος. Οὐ μόνον δὲ ἐν τοῖς μεγάλοις τῶν ζῴων τὴν ἀνεξιχνίαστον σοφίαν ἔξεστι κατιδεῖν, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν τοῖς μικροτάτοις οὐδὲν ἔλαττον συναγεῖραι τὸ θαῦμα. Ὥσπερ γὰρ οὐ μᾶλλον θαυμάζω τὰς μεγάλας τῶν ὀρῶν κορυφὰς, αἳ τῷ πλησίον εἶναι τῶν νεφῶν τῇ συνεχεῖ περιπνοίᾳ διασώζουσι τὸ χειμέριον, ἢ τὴν ἐν ταῖς φάραγξι κοιλότητα, οὐ μόνον τὸ δυσήνεμον τῶν ὑψηλῶν διαφεύγουσαν, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀλεεινὸν ἀεὶ τὸν ἀέρα συνέχουσαν: οὕτως καὶ ἐν ταῖς τῶν ζῴων κατασκευαῖς οὐ μᾶλλον ἄγαμαι τὸν ἐλέφαντα τοῦ μεγέθους, ἢ τὸν μῦν, ὅτι φοβερός ἐστι τῷ ἐλέφαντι: ἢ τὸ λεπτότατον τοῦ σκορπίου κέντρον, πῶς ἐκοίλανεν ὥσπερ αὐλὸν ὁ τεχνίτης, ὥστε δι' αὐτοῦ τὸν ἰὸν τοῖς τρωθεῖσιν ἐνίεσθαι. Καὶ μηδεὶς ἐγκαλείτω τούτου ἕνεκεν τῷ ποιητῇ, ὅτι ἰοβόλα ζῷα καὶ φθαρτικὰ καὶ πολέμια τῇ ζωῇ ἡμῶν ἐπεισήγαγεν: ἢ οὕτω δ' ἄν τις καὶ παιδαγωγῷ ἐγκαλοίη εἰς τάξιν ἄγοντι τὴν εὐκολίαν τῆς νεότητος, καὶ πληγαῖς καὶ μάστιξι τὸ ἀκόλαστον σωφρονίζοντι.